8. Colour Coding Communication Books and Boards
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Research has shown (see articles listed below) that the use of colour can have a positive effect on a Learner's ability to work with an AAC system. Colour can be used to pick out parts of speech or to group certain categories of vocabulary.
Back in 1929, Edith Fitzgerald wrote a book entitled 'Straight Language For Deaf' which, as its name implies, is a manual on a method for teaching language and grammar to those people who have little or no hearing. Although Edith divides sentences up into parts of speech, and has a key system for doing this, at no point in the book does she talk about a colour encoding system (Fitzgerald's original key was based on a set of six symbols with each standing for a particular part of speech). However, such a colour encoding system has been attributed to her and it has become known as the Fitzgerald Color (colour) coding system. It is a means to classify different parts of speech and to make them easily distinguishable from one another. Though there appears to be no one set colour standard for every part of speech in the system, some colours are consistently used:
adjectives blue
pronouns yellow
nouns orange
verbs green
beyond that there appears to be a variety of colours used in what generally is referred to as a 'modified Fitzgerald key':
adverbials brown
conjunctions white
determiners grey
expletives red
interrogatives purple
negations red
prepositions pink
It should be stressed that you will find all manner of variations on the 'Fitzgerald key' in use although it is recommended that you
consistently maintain at least one 'standard'.
Of course, there may be classes within classes: for example, there are modal and auxiliary verbs as well as lexical verbs. All will be colour coded green but a variation in the tone of green used can be made to great effect. Also, where nouns are grouped according to categories, each category could have an alternating shade of orange such that neighbouring categories are distinguishable.
ALTERNATIVES TO FITZGERALD
There are alternative colour coding systems available. Indeed, you can devise your own. As long as it consistently applied across the curriculum and across the establishment then there should be no complications.
Below is a list of those of which Talksense is aware. Talksense does not recommend any one colour coding system above any other. However, it could be potentially very confusing if more than one colour encoding system were to be used in any one establishment. In an ideal world we would all use the same colour coding system such that there would be an international standard.
- Goossens, Crain, and Elder's System
- Colourful Semantics (not really an AAC coding system) by Alison Bryan
- Montessori-3-Part-Cards-Grammar-Symbols
- OTHER?
If you are aware of any alternative colour encoding systems, please contact Talksense and let us know; we will add them to the listing.
For further information see:
Alant, E., Kolatsis, A., & Lilienfeld, M.. (2010), The effect of sequential exposure of color conditions on time and accuracy of graphic symbol location. AAC. Volume 26(1):pp. 41 - 47.
Bolderson, S., Dosanjh, C., Milligan, C., Pring, T. & Chiat, S. (2011). Colourful semantics: A clinical investigation. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, Volume 27, pp. 344 - 353
Bryan, A. (1997) Colourful Semantics. In S, Chait., J, Law., & J, Marshall. (Eds), Language disorders in children and adults: Psycholinguistic approaches to therapy. London Whurr
Bryan, A., Bolderson, S., Coelho, C. & Dosanjih, C. (2007). Colourful Semantics: Application in school settings. Afasic 4th International Symposium: Unlocking speech and language. University of Warwick, UK
Dwyer, F.M., & Lamberski, R.J. (1983). A Review of the Research on the Effects of the Use of Color in the Teaching-learning Process. International Journal of Instructional Media, Volume 10 (4), pp. 303 - 307
Ebbels S. (2007), Teaching grammar to school-aged children with specific language impairment using Shape Coding, Child Language Teaching and Therapy, Volume 23 (1); pp. 67–93
Farran, E.K., Courbois, Y., Van Herwegen, J., Cruickshank, A.G., & Blades, M. (2012), Colour as an environmental cue when learning a route in a virtual environment: Typical and atypical development, Research in Developmental Disabilities, Volume 33, Issue 3, May–June 2012, pp. 900 – 908
Fitzgerald, E. (1926)(republished June 1949), Straight Language for the Deaf, Alex Graham Bell Assn for Deaf
Goossens, C., Crain, S., & Elder, P. (1992). Engineering the Classroom Environment for Interactive Symbolic Communication. Southeast Aug Comm Conference Publications, 2430 11th Avenue, N, Birmingham, AL 35234
Kovattana, P.M. & Kraemer, H.C. (1974), Response to multiple visual cues of color, size, and form by autistic children, Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, Volume 4, Issue 3, pp 251 - 261
Laws, G. (2002), Working memory in children and adolescents with Down syndrome: evidence from a colour memory experiment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Volume 43 (3), pp. 353 - 364
Lea, J. (1970) The colour pattern scheme: a method of remedial language teaching. Hurst Green, Surrey, UK: Moor House School.
Pett, D., & Wilson, T. (1996), Color research and its application to the design of instructional materials, Educational Technology Research and Development, Volume 44, Issue 3, pp. 19 - 35
Stephenson, J. (2007), The effect of color on the recognition and use of line drawings by children with severe intellectual disabilities. AAC. Volume 23(1): pp. 44 - 55.
Thistle, J.J, & Wilkinson, K. (2009), The effects of color cues on typically developing preschoolers' speed of locating a target line drawing: implications for augmentative and alternative communication display design. American Journal of Speech & Language Pathology, Volume 18(3):pp. 231 - 240.
Wilkinson,K.M.,& Jagaroo,V.(2004) Contributions of principles of visual cognitive science to AAC system display design.Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 20: pp.123 – 136
Wilkinson,K.M.,Carlin,M.,& Jagaroo,V.(2006). Preschoolers' speed of locating a target symbol under different color conditions, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 22 pp.123 – 133
Wilkinson, K. M., Carlin, M., & Thistle, J. (2008). The role of color cues in facilitating accurate and rapid location of aided symbols by children with and without Down Syndrome. American Journal of Speech-Language-Pathology, Volume 17, pp. 179 - 193
Wilkinson, K.M., & Coombs, B. (2010). Preliminary exploration of the effect of background color on the speed and accuracy of search for an aided symbol target by typically developing preschoolers. Early Childhood Services; Special Issue on Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 4, pp. 33 - 47.
Wilkinson, K.M, & Snell, J. (2011), Facilitating children's ability to distinguish symbols for emotions: the effects of background color cues and spatial arrangement of symbols on accuracy and speed of search. American Journal of Speech & Language Pathology. Volume;20(4): pp. 288 - 301.
Research has shown (see articles listed below) that the use of colour can have a positive effect on a Learner's ability to work with an AAC system. Colour can be used to pick out parts of speech or to group certain categories of vocabulary.
Back in 1929, Edith Fitzgerald wrote a book entitled 'Straight Language For Deaf' which, as its name implies, is a manual on a method for teaching language and grammar to those people who have little or no hearing. Although Edith divides sentences up into parts of speech, and has a key system for doing this, at no point in the book does she talk about a colour encoding system (Fitzgerald's original key was based on a set of six symbols with each standing for a particular part of speech). However, such a colour encoding system has been attributed to her and it has become known as the Fitzgerald Color (colour) coding system. It is a means to classify different parts of speech and to make them easily distinguishable from one another. Though there appears to be no one set colour standard for every part of speech in the system, some colours are consistently used:
adjectives blue
pronouns yellow
nouns orange
verbs green
beyond that there appears to be a variety of colours used in what generally is referred to as a 'modified Fitzgerald key':
adverbials brown
conjunctions white
determiners grey
expletives red
interrogatives purple
negations red
prepositions pink
It should be stressed that you will find all manner of variations on the 'Fitzgerald key' in use although it is recommended that you
consistently maintain at least one 'standard'.
Of course, there may be classes within classes: for example, there are modal and auxiliary verbs as well as lexical verbs. All will be colour coded green but a variation in the tone of green used can be made to great effect. Also, where nouns are grouped according to categories, each category could have an alternating shade of orange such that neighbouring categories are distinguishable.
ALTERNATIVES TO FITZGERALD
There are alternative colour coding systems available. Indeed, you can devise your own. As long as it consistently applied across the curriculum and across the establishment then there should be no complications.
Below is a list of those of which Talksense is aware. Talksense does not recommend any one colour coding system above any other. However, it could be potentially very confusing if more than one colour encoding system were to be used in any one establishment. In an ideal world we would all use the same colour coding system such that there would be an international standard.
- Goossens, Crain, and Elder's System
- Colourful Semantics (not really an AAC coding system) by Alison Bryan
- Montessori-3-Part-Cards-Grammar-Symbols
- OTHER?
If you are aware of any alternative colour encoding systems, please contact Talksense and let us know; we will add them to the listing.
For further information see:
Alant, E., Kolatsis, A., & Lilienfeld, M.. (2010), The effect of sequential exposure of color conditions on time and accuracy of graphic symbol location. AAC. Volume 26(1):pp. 41 - 47.
Bolderson, S., Dosanjh, C., Milligan, C., Pring, T. & Chiat, S. (2011). Colourful semantics: A clinical investigation. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, Volume 27, pp. 344 - 353
Bryan, A. (1997) Colourful Semantics. In S, Chait., J, Law., & J, Marshall. (Eds), Language disorders in children and adults: Psycholinguistic approaches to therapy. London Whurr
Bryan, A., Bolderson, S., Coelho, C. & Dosanjih, C. (2007). Colourful Semantics: Application in school settings. Afasic 4th International Symposium: Unlocking speech and language. University of Warwick, UK
Dwyer, F.M., & Lamberski, R.J. (1983). A Review of the Research on the Effects of the Use of Color in the Teaching-learning Process. International Journal of Instructional Media, Volume 10 (4), pp. 303 - 307
Ebbels S. (2007), Teaching grammar to school-aged children with specific language impairment using Shape Coding, Child Language Teaching and Therapy, Volume 23 (1); pp. 67–93
Farran, E.K., Courbois, Y., Van Herwegen, J., Cruickshank, A.G., & Blades, M. (2012), Colour as an environmental cue when learning a route in a virtual environment: Typical and atypical development, Research in Developmental Disabilities, Volume 33, Issue 3, May–June 2012, pp. 900 – 908
Fitzgerald, E. (1926)(republished June 1949), Straight Language for the Deaf, Alex Graham Bell Assn for Deaf
Goossens, C., Crain, S., & Elder, P. (1992). Engineering the Classroom Environment for Interactive Symbolic Communication. Southeast Aug Comm Conference Publications, 2430 11th Avenue, N, Birmingham, AL 35234
Kovattana, P.M. & Kraemer, H.C. (1974), Response to multiple visual cues of color, size, and form by autistic children, Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, Volume 4, Issue 3, pp 251 - 261
Laws, G. (2002), Working memory in children and adolescents with Down syndrome: evidence from a colour memory experiment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Volume 43 (3), pp. 353 - 364
Lea, J. (1970) The colour pattern scheme: a method of remedial language teaching. Hurst Green, Surrey, UK: Moor House School.
Pett, D., & Wilson, T. (1996), Color research and its application to the design of instructional materials, Educational Technology Research and Development, Volume 44, Issue 3, pp. 19 - 35
Stephenson, J. (2007), The effect of color on the recognition and use of line drawings by children with severe intellectual disabilities. AAC. Volume 23(1): pp. 44 - 55.
Thistle, J.J, & Wilkinson, K. (2009), The effects of color cues on typically developing preschoolers' speed of locating a target line drawing: implications for augmentative and alternative communication display design. American Journal of Speech & Language Pathology, Volume 18(3):pp. 231 - 240.
Wilkinson,K.M.,& Jagaroo,V.(2004) Contributions of principles of visual cognitive science to AAC system display design.Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 20: pp.123 – 136
Wilkinson,K.M.,Carlin,M.,& Jagaroo,V.(2006). Preschoolers' speed of locating a target symbol under different color conditions, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 22 pp.123 – 133
Wilkinson, K. M., Carlin, M., & Thistle, J. (2008). The role of color cues in facilitating accurate and rapid location of aided symbols by children with and without Down Syndrome. American Journal of Speech-Language-Pathology, Volume 17, pp. 179 - 193
Wilkinson, K.M., & Coombs, B. (2010). Preliminary exploration of the effect of background color on the speed and accuracy of search for an aided symbol target by typically developing preschoolers. Early Childhood Services; Special Issue on Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 4, pp. 33 - 47.
Wilkinson, K.M, & Snell, J. (2011), Facilitating children's ability to distinguish symbols for emotions: the effects of background color cues and spatial arrangement of symbols on accuracy and speed of search. American Journal of Speech & Language Pathology. Volume;20(4): pp. 288 - 301.
Ways of colour coding cells
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There are at least three ways of colour coding cells:
1. Background fill A background fill is the most obvious of the colour encoding methodologies completely flood filling the background to cell behind the symbol. However, this method uses a lot of printer ink and, therefore, is the most expensive. Furthermore, if you find that when you print you are getting an error message relating to the lack of available memory, switching to one of the other colour coding methodologies may resolve the problem. Some images used for AAC systems (especially those imported from the web) do not have a transparent background and when placed on top of a coloured cell fill show the symbol background over the cell colour. This tends to obscure the cell colour and does not look visually pleasing, especially if some symbols have the white border and some symbols do not. Furthermore, such imported images will partially obscure any fill scan used, if such an access method is employed. Imported images should be selected therefore that have transparent backgrounds: .jpg will always have the white surround, while many gif files will not. Better still are vector graphics (.wmf, .emf, etc) which do not have backgrounds and will not pixellate if a re-size is required. 2. Border colour Border colour encoding utilises either the actual frame of the cell or places an additional colour border inside the frame. The width of the border can be set by within the software by the board designer such that it can be at a size that can be easily seen by the Learner when s/he is using the board. As only the border is coloured, less printer ink is used, reducing printing costs. 3. Title Bar Title Bar Colour Encoding places a strip of colour at the top of the cell in a ‘Monopoly property card’ like arrangement. As the border colour methodology, this process uses a fraction of the colour than a full background fill and therefore also reduces printing costs. There could be variations on this theme with the bar placed at the bottom of the cell or to one side. |
All the illustrations for this section use the Fitzgerald Key colour orange to represent a noun for the symbol for ‘banana’. As long as the use remains consistent through a board set, any shade or tone of orange could be used as long as it distinguishable from other colours on the
board.
NOTE: For scanning systems Users, the scan type must be set to the opposite of the colour encoding system used. For example: if a border colour encoding system is used, the scan type must be a fill scan. If the background fill colour encoding system is used, the scan type must be an outline scan. This is to reduce the possible visual conflict between border colour encodings and border colour scans, as well as between background colour encodings and background colour scans! The scan position must be clear to the Learner and this is best achieved by adopting a type of scan that does not conflict the colour encoding system used.
board.
NOTE: For scanning systems Users, the scan type must be set to the opposite of the colour encoding system used. For example: if a border colour encoding system is used, the scan type must be a fill scan. If the background fill colour encoding system is used, the scan type must be an outline scan. This is to reduce the possible visual conflict between border colour encodings and border colour scans, as well as between background colour encodings and background colour scans! The scan position must be clear to the Learner and this is best achieved by adopting a type of scan that does not conflict the colour encoding system used.
Automatic Colour Encoding
As far as TalkSense is aware, there is only one system offering automatic background colouring. That system is Voice Symbol. However, if you know of another software system that is used for creating communication boards that also offers this feature please e-mail and tell me.
Voice symbol includes an automated system for colour encoding cells to save the designer both time and effort when building boards and ensuring consistency across boards and systems. The A.C.E. (Automatic Colour Encoding) system is switched off by default and has to be switched on manually from the GM panel. Once turned on, as symbols are stamped into cells, so a background colour is automatically applied. The default colours follow the Fitzgerald key, however, any colour can easily be set from within the system. A problem occurs were a word can act as more than one part of speech: as a high percentage of words in English behave this way, it is a bit of a headache! Consider the word ‘go’. If you were asked what part of speech it was, you would probably say a verb. However, if you have a go at something; ‘go’ here is acting as a noun! Therefore, how can the software‘know’ what colour to add to a background: green for a verb or orange for a noun? The answer is, it doesn’t. It has be taught both! It will first stamp one colour (green) and then, if that’s not how you intend using the symbol, it will change it to another (orange) if you select F4 from your keyboard. F4 acts to cycle through the available colours for any vocabulary unit. Some words have been assigned up to six colours because the word can act as six different parts of speech!
Not only can you change the colour assigned to a part of speech, you can rearrange the order in which the colours are stamped. As such, the system is totally customisable. It is not the function of this Sure Start Sheet to describe how to adjust the settings for the A.C.E. scheme, this is covered in the Voice Symbol user manual.
Colours can also be adjusted manually, if you are designing a cell that is an exception to the rule and, so, all eventualities are covered.
Voice symbol includes an automated system for colour encoding cells to save the designer both time and effort when building boards and ensuring consistency across boards and systems. The A.C.E. (Automatic Colour Encoding) system is switched off by default and has to be switched on manually from the GM panel. Once turned on, as symbols are stamped into cells, so a background colour is automatically applied. The default colours follow the Fitzgerald key, however, any colour can easily be set from within the system. A problem occurs were a word can act as more than one part of speech: as a high percentage of words in English behave this way, it is a bit of a headache! Consider the word ‘go’. If you were asked what part of speech it was, you would probably say a verb. However, if you have a go at something; ‘go’ here is acting as a noun! Therefore, how can the software‘know’ what colour to add to a background: green for a verb or orange for a noun? The answer is, it doesn’t. It has be taught both! It will first stamp one colour (green) and then, if that’s not how you intend using the symbol, it will change it to another (orange) if you select F4 from your keyboard. F4 acts to cycle through the available colours for any vocabulary unit. Some words have been assigned up to six colours because the word can act as six different parts of speech!
Not only can you change the colour assigned to a part of speech, you can rearrange the order in which the colours are stamped. As such, the system is totally customisable. It is not the function of this Sure Start Sheet to describe how to adjust the settings for the A.C.E. scheme, this is covered in the Voice Symbol user manual.
Colours can also be adjusted manually, if you are designing a cell that is an exception to the rule and, so, all eventualities are covered.
Colours as a means to select encoded vocabulary
Colour can also be used within a communication system to encode for vocabulary selection in several ways. Etran frames (eye gaze frames) as depicted left typically utilise a colour coded vocabulary selection methodology although the item depicted immediately left has only a simple two vocabulary choice (yes and no).
The learner sits on one side of the the Etran frame and a staff member sits on the other. The frame is made of clear acrylic with a central hole to provide an even clearer view through the system for both Learner and staff. The Learner can look at a particular item to indicate a vocabulary selection. The staff member can see where the Learner is looking and therefore knows which vocabulary item has been selected.
It is easy to tell where a Learner is looking with a two item system as depicted but what if there are 16 or 32 or more items? It may not be so easy to decide at which item the Learner is looking as the general area of gaze may encompass several symbols.
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To get around this problem Etran frame typically make use of a colour encoding system. Items of vocabulary are grouped together in units of 4, or 6, or more. Each unit has a specific colour background and each item with the unit has its own unique colour. The Learner can look at a particular unit and the staff member can easily tell which unit has been selected. The Learner then chooses a specific item from the unit by looking at its colour (each unit represents a different colour choice. Its background indicating the colour). Thus, choosing an item of vocabulary is a two step process: 1. Look at a unit; 2. Look at a colour to identify a particular item from the chosen unit. Some Etran frames can be designed to have 6 or more units. The frame depicted left is a 6 unit frame with an additional yes and no option. Each unit contains 6 vocabulary items. Each unit also represents one of 6 colours. Each vocabulary item within the unit is colout coded to one of these 6 colours. Thus, 36 vocabulary units are available (plus yes and no = 38). By definition, it is highly unlikely that you would create an Etran frame with a huge vocabulary, it would simply be difficult to manage. Note: not all Etran frames use colour, some use number instead to reference a particular unit. As the designer, the choice is yours. The Etran frame typically arrives as a blank canvas onto which you design and paint your vocabulary masterpiece! Etran frames can also be set up using letters for spelling rather than whole words or even whole sentences. Such spelling systems are not confined to the Etran format, it is possible to create a communication board using a similar technique as is depicted below and left. This and the Etran are examples of FAST aprroaches (Facilitator Aided Selection Technique): that is, they require a facilitator ( a second person, typically skilled in using the systems) in order to permit the Learner to commuicate with another party. Of course , the third party might be capable of working directly with the Learner but many people may feel uncomfortable in that role. If the Learner can directly point to spell (and therefore does not require an Etran) there may not be a problem but, if the learner uses eye gaze via a FAST system then, it generally requires an able facilitator to translate on behalf of the Learner. This, of course, is not an ideal solution but until the Learner can be provided with another system then it is a lot better than nothing at all. Many alternatives can cost many thousands of dollars/pounds and have problems of portability, battery life, and other considerations. Even with such a solution, there is always need for a low tech back-up and therefore Etran and spelling boards etc will always be required. In training a person to use a colour coding system it is possible to locate small rubber surround door carpets to which vecro adheres like a dream! These are typically sold in supermarkets and other stores and are not very expensive. If you are lucky enough you may find one that has a pattern of colours which lends itself to colour encoding! They come into fashion and, as quickly, disappear! Thus, you need to keep your eyes open and when you see such an item buy not just one but, at least, four! Why four? Well with four you can use each one for a different unit of vocabulary, each containing four words (sentences, other) each carpet can be separately assigned a colour or a number and thus you are creating a giant (not so transparent) Etran! Of course, it is not an Etran because this system is hung on the wall and is used for teaching purposes only. Why not just go straight to the Etran, I hear you cry! Of course you can, if the Learner can cope with that, all well and good. However, an Etran is small and this system is huge! It's easy to use, simple, cheap and effective for teaching the concept before scaling down to the Etran system. OK, if you do not like the idea, don't use it! A further idea that uses colour encoding is to have a set of special cards in the classroom which have those sort of messages on them that we need a t certain times but then do not need to use again for days (even months) unti that time arises once again. Of course, we could poulate communication books with such vocabulary BUT we are trying to limit the size of the Personal Communication System (PCS) to make it more effective. All we need in the PCS is a reference to the cards so that the person knows that the Learner wishes to communicate something beyond what is contained in their PCS. Such cards typically have whole sentences so that it's really quick for the Learner to wish another person a happy anniversay or to sing them a birthday song (Yes, with the V-Pen system it is possible to make the card sing! If you do not have such a system then a staff member has to sing on the Learner's behalf!). Such cards are further examples of TRVs (see earlier sections of these documents) Temporarily Restricted Vocabularies. Of course, colour encoding can be used to great effect within communication folders themselves. Colous can beused to mark out certain items of vocabulary on individual pages but can also be used to mark sections of the folder using tabs. The tabs colours can be linked to the individual pages in some way if this is possible: for example, if the pages are arranged by part of speech (and not TALK as depicted below) then the tabs could use the Fitzgerald key. When deciding what colour tabs go with which ever page don't forget to involve the Learner! It's their communication system after all! NOTE: The colours of the tabs in the image of the (TALKed) drinks page of the communication book example depicted below do NOT represent any system and should NOT be used as a definitive model of colour encoding. Places do not need to be purple!!!! |
Colourful Conflicts
A word of warning! If you are using one colour encoding system for the development of AAC then it is potentially confusing to have other members of staff using other colour coding systems for other purposes especially if they are to do with any aspect of language learning. Whatever system you select, ensure it is consistently applied across the curriculum and that no conflicting system is being used by others which will serve to confuse Learners.
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