101 ideas for working with simple AAC

WORKING WITH SIMPLE AAC

101 ideas for the implementation of AAC devices that are simple

This page is devoted to ideas that may prove useful for people working with electronic (mains charged or battery) AAC devices that are basically simple and thus cannot be used to communicate any idea or sentence. Such devices typically include those with overlays (active cells or surfaces) of up to (but not exceeding) 32 locations. These include (and Talksense does not pretend that this list is either up-to-date or exhaustive!) such systems as the Advocate, AMDI systems, BIGmack, BIG Point, BIG step, Bluebird, Cardinal, Chatbox, Chickadee, Doo-zy, Eagle, Fl4sh, Go Talk, Humming Bird, IntroTalker, I-Talk-Too, Lingo, Listen-To-Me, LITTLEmack, LittleStep, Partner 4, Pocket Talk, Quick Talker, Sequencer, SimpleAAC, Smooth Talker, Step-By-Step, Super Talker, Talking Buttons, TechTalks, VoicePal, Voice Pen and paper, etc (with apologies for any that may have been missed from the past or in the future) as well as many (presently the majority) of the iPad apps for AAC that are available. These systems will come and go and others will undoubtedly be added into the mix as the years progress but, whatever the system is called, its uses remains fairly similar across the world.

Typically, such systems:

- do not have linked pages;
- have each cell on any overlay providing a single, recordable message;
- do not scan but a cell may be operable by an external switch;
- require static paper based symbols /symbol overlays (iPad apps are one exception to this);
- may contain changeable levels such that facilitators can switch from one set up to another;
- have overlay sizes of less than 32 locations (usually even numbers);

The above list provides typical features of simple AAC systems however there may be some that do NOT conform: for example, there are some simple AAC systems that do scan (for example the FL4SH system from AbleNet) and some that have linked pages.

Please Note: Their are many simple AAC devices that are not electronic. As this page focuses on the electronic/battery operated systems it does NOT follow that Talksense believes these are better or should be used in preference to other systems. Both electronic and non-electronic systems have their place and their functions and should be equally valued and utilised. Some of the ideas on this page will apply equally to non- electronic systems.

Working with simple AAC: Ideas and Implementation

There are (actually over) 101 ideas for USING / IMPLEMENTING simple AAC on the page below. Talksense hopes that at least one of them will inspire you to try it! Where possible the ideas will be illustrated with suitable images. There may be many other ideas that have not been covered below. If you are aware of any and wish to share them with the readers of this web site contact Talksense and let us know.

This page is not about any one particular brand/make or Speech Generating Device or AAC system. The majority of the ideas below will work on any of the systems mentioned above and many of those that were not mentioned at all. Talksense does not endorse one system above any other.

This page does not focus on ideas for particular group of Learners experiencing communication difficulties. It does not focus entirely on the needs of those people experiencing PMLD, for example. Rather, it has a wider focus for all those who are currently working with or who might benefit from simple AAC (electronic) systems.

Some of the implementation ideas apply to Single Sell Systems (such as the BIGmack for example) but most can be used with any multi-cell system. Where a particular idea is (only) applicable to a Single Surface System (SSS) then the abbreviation SSS will appear in the section. For those who require ideas for working with SSS devices such as the BIGmack, there is a page dedicated to this area. Click on the drawing of the BIGmack above to move to that page.

Some of the sections below are devoted to implementation techniques and as such may be used with some of the idea presented. As with any other system there is good practice and there is poor practice. Best practice is obviously not common sense as Talksense does not always see it when we are observing in classrooms around the globe. Hopefully, some of the sections below will raise your awareness of some of the issues in this area.

On the web page below are examples of many overlays. Some may inspire you, some you may say, 'I can do better than that', some might prompt a 'that wouldn't work for Jimmy because ...', some will elicit a 'that's too complex for Jane'. Well, if you can do better, then do better! I often find that seeing other overlays inspires me to create a better one based on my reaction to the first. If it would not work for Jimmy then make a similar one that would! If it's too complex for Jane then create a simpler overlay with less cells. The overlays are not intended to be the panacea for all ills; one size fits all. They are a generic set of examples, shown on different systems, and at different sizes. Talksense hopes that you will be inspired!

A few further points before we get started:

- If you believe there is something missing from this page, or something is not quite right, why not contact Talksense and let us
know. We welcome your comments. There is a form at the bottom of the page for this purpose.
- Some sections contain a set of references which can provide follow up study for those who wish to pursue matters further.
- A few sections have video links to illustrate a particular concept as appropriate.
- The sections are arranged alphabetically by title in the main.
- The sections do not have to be read in order although some sections relate to others but this is generally specified.
- The generic term 'Learner' used across this web page refers to Individuals who are using AAC whether they be male or female
and regardless of age or level of ability (although it is assumed, as this page concerns simple AAC, that Learners will a lower level
of ability), etc.
- All images unless otherwise stated are copyright Talksense. Clicking on many of the images will enlarge them or transport to
another Web Page.
- A form is provided at the foot of the page to contact Talksense for comments and or suggestions.

See Also:

Piche, L. & Locke, P. (1997). 45 ideas for using a beginning VOCA. Presented at Technology and Persons with Disabilities Conference (CSUN), Los Angeles.

Download Free Wall Chart

Before we begin to list the ideas, below is a free wall chart developed by the Call Centre Scotland in collaboration with Talksense. Talksense would like to thank Sally Millar and Rebecca Gow of the Call Centre for their input to the development of this chart. To download the PDF file of the chart please click on it.

1. BEST POLEs

BEST = Best Ever Stimulating Thing
POLE = Person Object Location Event

In order to tempt a reluctant Learner to use an SGD (Speech Generating Device), even one that is simple, may require the facilitator to make BEST POLEs available through its use. In order that a Learner may come to understand that the use of an SGD results in the ability to obtain a desired reward then the BEST is a great place to start! Some uses of a simple AAC system do not result in a tangible reward: for example, if I were to store 'What time is it please?' on a SSS then the system User is not obtaining a reward from its use (unless the User likes people talking to him/her a lot or is excited by knowing the current time). Beginning Learners of simple AAC systems are more likely to be motivated by concrete POLEs (Persons Objects Locations or Events) than abstract notions. However, a POLE that is motivating to one Learner may not be very motivating to another; one Learner may really love chocolate (object) while another may really like walking in the garden (location) and yet another may really love working with Mary, the Support Assistant (Person). If we can put a BEST POLE at the end of a simple AAC system (in other words, make the receiving of something really motivating to the Learner contingent on the use of a cell on a simple AAC system) then we have a chance of motivating the reluctant User.

Starting simply with a SSS leading to a BEST POLE can not only motivate a reluctant communicator but also help to establish Cause and effect awareness (see cause and effect later on this page) as well as the beginnings of symbolic awareness. While there is always a greater danger of fly-swatting (see fly-swatting later on this web page) with an SSS this will be overcome (or, at least, highlighted) on movement to and use of a two, three, or greater overlay system at some future point.

Can we always put a BEST POLE on a SSS? Yes! Whatever it is that is motivating to a particular Learner we can surely provide on request at some point. However, there are some BEST POLES that may not be able to be supplied on demand in the classroom: for example, a Learner may love to go swimming, but the swimming pool is across the other side of town and is only available to the establishment on a particular day during a particular time slot. This situation is detailed further in the 'instant reward' section further down this web page.

The above animated image depicts an early stage in using a FL4SH system with only one of the four avialable locations in use. That location depicts chocolate which is a BEST for this Learner. The scan proceeds automatically at a pre-selected rate and, if the Learner can stop it on the 'chocolate location' (by activating the switch), the system says, "I want a piece of chocolate please". The Learner is rewarded with just half of a chocolate button!

The image below shows the same FL4SH unit, this time set up with four items in four locations. Again, the Learner is required to stop the scan on the chocolate symbol to obtain the reward. The scan can be set to announce each item as it reaches them. This is known as an auditory scan and is particularly useful for Learners with poorer visual acuity. You will note that the other three things have been chosen to be things that can be easily supplied, are safe (the key would have to be large so it could not be swallowed, for example) but are not very stimulating for this particular Learner. If the Learner stops the scan on the cotton reel, that's what the Learner is given! Once given the item, s/he is allowed to try again. See the section on setting limits further down this web page.

2. A Means to an End

There are Long Term Goal (LTG), goals, targets, and objectives. Using simple AAC should always be a tool utilised as a means to an end and not the end itself. Even if the Learner in question is experiencing Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD), it does not follow that his or her LTG should be anything less than Language and Communication. While 'Functional Communication' may indeed be a milestone on route to that end, and we might have very, very basic beginnings, we should not limit the Learner or ourselves by believing that s/he is NOT capable of such intellectual feats. If we believe that a Learner has specific limits then we are in a very real danger of making those limits a reality through our actions (the Self Fulfilling Prophecy). Having said that, it does not follow:

- all Learners will become brilliant communicators;
- we cannot start with very simple AAC tasks;
- we have to meet milestones in specific amounts of time.
- it's your job to take the Learner the whole journey.

Learning to communicate is a pathway; a road that must be travelled that is marked by specific milestones along the route. Some milestones are closer together than others! Some Learners are travelling on high speed trains and some Learners are walking slowly assisted by Significant others every now and again. Furthermore, some travellers board the train later on the journey! It is assumed that, as you are reading this page, your travellers are journeying from the beginning on foot and have poor walking skills as well! The end of the line must look very distal indeed but it is still the end of the line; do not be tempted to build a wall a few yards ahead and call that the terminus - the Learner has a ticket for the whole journey! Whist it may be a reasonable belief that a specific traveller will not travel to the end of the line, we cannot know that with 100% certainty and we should not plan that they will disembark at the very first stop.

See Also:

Brameld, T. (1972). "Education as self-fulfilling prophecy". Phi Beta Kappa, Volume 54 (1): pp. 8–11

Cotton, K. (2001). Expectations and student outcomes. Retrieved from http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/4/cu7.html

Feldman, R.S. & Prohaska, T. (1979). "The student as Pygmalion: Effect of student expectation on the teacher". Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 71 (4), pp. 485 – 493

Ferguson, R.F. (2003). Teachers‟ perceptions and expectations and the black-white test score gap. Urban Education, Volume 38 (4), pp. 460-507

Gozali, J., & Meyen, E.L. (1970). The influence of the teacher expectancy phenomenon on the academic performances of educable mentally retarded pupils in special classes. Journal of Special Education, Volume 4, pp. 417 - 424.

Jussim, L. & Harber, K.D. (2005). "Teacher Expectations and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Knowns and Unknowns, Resolved and Unresolved Controversies". Personality and Social Psychology Review, Volume 9 (2), pp. 131–155

McGrew, K.S., & Evans, J. (2004). Expectations for Students with Cognitive Disabilities: Is the Cup Half Empty or Half Full? Can the Cup Flow Over? NCEO Synthesis Report 55, Published by the National Center on Educational Outcomes

McGrew, K.M., Johnson, D., Cosio, A., & Evans, J. (2004). Increasing the chance of no child being left behind: Beyond cognitive and achievement abilities. Minneapolis, MN: Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota.

Miller, C.T., Clarke, R.T., Malcarne, V.L., & Lobato, D. (1991). Expectations and social interactions of children with and without mental retardation. Journal of Special Education, Volume 24 (4), pp. 454-472.

Rist, R. (2000). Student social class and teacher expectations: The self-fulfilling prophecy in ghetto education. Harvard Educational Review, Volume 70 (3), pp. 257-301.

Rist, R., & Harrell, J.E. (1982). Labelling the learning disabled child: The social ecology of educational practice. American Journal of Othopsychiatry, Volume 52, pp. 146-160.

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1966). Teachers’ expectancies: Determinants of pupils’ IQ gains. Psychological Reports, Volume 1, pp. 115 - 118.

Rosenthal, R. & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1992). Pygmalion in the classroom (Expanded ed.). New York: Irvington.

Rosenthal, R. (2003). Covert communication in laboratories, classrooms, and the truly real world. Psychological Science, Volume 12, pp. 151-155.

Wilkins, W.E. (1976). "The Concept of a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy". Sociology of Education, Volume 49 (2): pp. 175 – 183.

Yeates, K.O., & Weisz, J.R. (1985). On being called “mentally retarded”: Do developmental and professional perspectives limit labelling effects? American Journal of Mental Deficiency, Volume 90 (3), pp. 349 - 352.

Ysseldyke, J.E., & Foster, G.G. (1978). Bias in teachers’ observations of emotionally disturbed and learning disabled children. Exceptional Children, Volume 44, pp. 613 - 615.

Zohar, A., Degani, A., & Vaaknin, E. (2001). Teachers’ beliefs about low-achieving students and higher order thinking. Teaching and Teacher Education, Volume 17, pp. 469 - 485.

3. And you are doing this because ...?

We would all do well to ask ourselves this phrase everyday; not just with simple AAC but in all we attempt to do with and for Learners. Talksense has often questioned the use of personal information on simple AAC, for example. Such phrases as 'My name is Tony and I live in Mansfield' may on occasion be a legitimate use of the such a system but one wonders:
- what the Learner understands from it;
- how often it gets used
- is it taking up a cell that might be better occupied by other vocabulary;
-   whether the Learner is just fly-swatting on some prompt or other.
The same does not hold true of more advanced AAC were a linked page can and should be dedicated to this area.

The same is (perhaps to a lesser extent) true of social greetings: such vocabulary as 'hello' and 'Good morning' are quite abstract for Learners experiencing PMLD. If a system is presented to each Learner one after another that repeats such a message, isn't it likely that the Learner is simple fly-swatting in response to staff approaching, smiling, speaking and presenting such a system? What are they really learning? The correct use of social greetings?

If:
- the entire session had other legitimate aims and objectives but;
- included saying 'Good Morning' using a simple AAC system and;
- the staff were able to state these further objectives,
then,
- they would be answering the question "and you are doing this because?".
- Talksense would consider this an example of good practice

When is the use of personal information on a simple AAC system legitimate?

          -     A visitor is expected in class and Learners are encouraged to introduce themselves;
          -     The Learner has to say the line as a part of a school production;
          -     The Learner really does understand the concepts involved and needs to use then frequently;
          - Other (where staff can answer 'and you're doing this because?'.

If the Learner really does understand the concepts involved then we should be questioning why s/he is working with a simple AAC system to provide Augmentative Communication and why s/he isn't working on a system with linked page output instead.

Of course, not everything we do with simple AAC has to have a sound educational motivation .... just the majority of the things! Having fun is a legitimate reason, although we can have fun AND have sound educational reasons underlying what we are attempting to do. Staff should avoid teaching fly-swatting and question what they think the Learner is understanding from the action; that is ... ask themselves 'and I am doing this because ...?'

4. Animal Magic

In the cartoon Sam is trying to train his cat to do tricks using his SSS! While that seems a silly idea, consider having an overlay with commands for a dog: 'sit'; 'roll over'; 'lay down', 'come'; 'stay'; 'fetch'; 'walkies' ... the benefit of using a simple AAC system to give such commands is that it always says them in exactly the same way each time. Most simple AAC systems use a recorded voice and so it is possible to give the command using just the right intonation. At one point, some years ago, my colleagues and I at a place where I used to work even considered creating a Doggie-Talker such that a dog could talk to its owner and say such things as 'I am hungry please can I have a biscuit' just by putting its paw on to a pad. If B.F. Skinner can train pigeons to peck at switches for rewards then why not talking dogs?!! However, this idea has the Learner talking to his pet using a simple AAC system. There appears to be no reason why this should not work!

These days, it is possible to purchase toys and other electronic equipment that responds to voice command. As a simple AAC system is always consistent, it should be a natural controller of such devices. Why not try it and see?!

One of Unlimiter's SimpleAAC for the iPad overlays giving access to doggie type commands through text to speech voice.

5. Announcement

Use simple AAC such that a Learner can give an announcement to the rest of the school, perhaps by travelling around and entering each classroom in turn.

This technique:

- provides the Learner with a sense of responsibility;
- encourages active use of the simple AAC system;
- promotes positive Learner perspectives on the simple AAC system as something
of value;
- acts as a role model for other potential Learners of simple AAC;
- encourages social use of system (if more than SSS).

6. Annoying? Then turn it into advantage!

Talksense has had several experiences in which professionals have requested the removal of songs from voice output communication aids because the Learners were using them to sing! Duh! Well, surprise, surprise ... if you enable someone to do something that they couldn't really do before what do you think they will do? Of course! It's no surprise. Every Christmas, when children get new toys, what do they do? They play with them - a lot. However, what happens after a few weeks? The novelty wears thin and the toys get played with a little less. If we start singing in the office someone might tell us to 'shut up' (or they may join in) but they wouldn't take me to a special room and remove my vocal chords or neutralise that part of my brain where the songs are stored. Why then, do some people request that songs be removed from voice output communication systems? Why not address the behaviour (Johnny, you should not be singing in class, this is not the time nor the place) as you would do with any other child who used their voice to start singing. We have to learn when it is right or wrong to do or say or sing certain things; that's how it should be.

So the child is actually using his/her simple AAC system? Hoorah! Don't complain, throw a party. It's cause to celebrate not criticise. Let's use this to our advantage. The child is obviously motivated by song, well, let's make it more difficult for him or her to get those songs from their system! Let's increase the grid size and put the song in an awkward place and see if s/he still manages to sing. Don't misunderstand our reasoning here: we are not trying to prevent the singing so we are not jumping from a two location to a 20 location in one go, we are probably stepping up to four locations only one of which is singing. Can the Learner still do it? Perhaps four is still well within their capabilities; let's keep steeping up until we reach the limit or until the Learner is having problems. At this point, go back down a level because we now now that the Learner can manage things at that location! That annoying song became an assessment method for calculating which was the the correct location size to use! We now need to start working on the vocabulary for that level with the Learner.

The idea is not to turn something that is easy and enjoyable into a chore but, rather, to explore its limits and and its potential for the good of the Learner.

7. April Fool

Why should simple AAC Users be excluded from playing April Fool pranks? They shouldn't!

All we need do is to store a few simple 'April Fool' type messages, from which a Learner may pick, in order to include any Learner in the day's events. In order to say the punch line ("April Fool") there has to be at least two cells (one for the prank and one for 'April Fool'). Where there are more cells then more pranks can be included. It is better if the 'April Fools' can be played on almost anyone rather than are specific to a particular person.

The iPad illustrated below contains seven different April Fool japes together with the 'April Fool' punchline. They can all be played on just about anyone apart from the 'you have left your car lights on' which, obviously, has to be said to an adult who has a car!

By the way, even if you know it's an April Fool, play along and just pretend you have been fooled: it's better for the Learner!

8. Assessing Awareness

Simple AAC systems could be set up so as to assess the awareness of Learners across all manner of areas of learning. For example, one could envisage a sort of Test of Reception Of Grammar (TROG) which could be undertaken through a series of carefully crafted overlays on a specific simple AAC system. It is not unthinkable that the same could be achieved by using multiple BIGmacks (or similar) for example.

With a specific overlay it would be possible to test a Learner's awareness of a specific topic taught in school. While a poor performance would not be an definitive indicator of a lack of knowledge a good performance would be statistically significant especially if it could be repeated on more than one occasion. The Reader is directed to look at the section on Temporarily Restricted Vocabularies (TRVs) that appears further down this page.

As an example, it would be possible to assess a Learner's awareness of the names of indigenous animals by showing real life examples of cats, dogs, etc and asking the Learner to name them using the simple AAC system provided. The larger the grid the more reliable the result. If a two location system were to be used to name either a cat or a dog for example, there is a 50% chance of achieving a correct response through chance alone. However, this figure is reduced considerably if the Learner can consistently produce a correct response over many trials using such a system.

The cartoon shows an incorrect way of doing such an assessment unless the Learner is aware of such things as monsters and jellyfish!

See also:

Beukelman, D., & Mirenda, P. (2005). Augmentative and alternative communication: Supporting children and adults with complex communication needs (3rd ed.) Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Light, J. (1989). Toward a definition of communicative competence for individuals using augmentative and alternative communication systems, AAC, Volume 5 (2), pp. 137 - 144

9. Assume makes an ASS out of U and ME!

"When you assume you make an ass out of you and me"
(attributed to Oscar Wilde)

"You must stick to your conviction, but be ready to abandon your assumptions"
(Denis Waitley)

"Begin challenging your own assumptions. Your assumptions are your windows on the world. Scrub them off every once in awhile, or the light won't come in." (Alan Alda)

"We must never assume that which is incapable of proof."
(George Henry Lewes)

"Never assume the obvious is true."
(William Safire)

There is a rather big problem with some of what is suggested on this page which can be avoided. It is to do with the assumption of understanding based on Learner performance with simple AAC. The problem is that you cannot assume, because the Learner appears to perform a task, the Learner understands the task! Simply because a Learner makes a selection from a simple AAC system, it is no guarantee that the Learner understands what s/he has selected, or anything about what s/he has selected, or even how to use the simple AAC system!

To make the above statement clearer, let's consider a simple AAC system with just three choices: apple juice, blackcurrant drink, and orange squash. The Learner activates a cell (either directly through touch or by scanning via a switch ) to indicate a choice. The Learner's 'choice' was orange squash.

What are we to assume?

          -     The Learner knows how to operate the simple AAC system correctly?
          -     The Learner has made a choice?
          -     The Learner understands 'orange' and 'orange squash'?
          -     The Learner is coping with selecting?
          -     All of the above
          -     None of the above

Actually, we can assume 'none of the above'. The Learner may have:

          -     simply selected by accident;
          -     on noticing the shiny thing in front of him/her, reached out for it;
          -     been intending to go for apple but missed it by a way;
          - if accessing by a switch, been intending to go for the (following) 'apple' but had come in too early;
          - if accessing by a switch, fly swatted the switch because it was there.

The Learner may not have made a conscious choice for a banana shake but rather got there by way of accident. However, as the Learner actually likes orange juice (indeed likes all three items) s/he does not complain when s/he gets a drink. The staff assume that the Learner has made a conscious choice and has been successful in the use of the system. None of these things may actually be true! Rather than claiming a Learner's understanding, staff should state they are TEACHING the Learner that a selection made in such a manner is what they will get ... choose apple ... get apple, choose orange ... get orange. However, if we want to assess the level of a Learner's understanding of the concepts involved, it is necessary to approach the Learner's choice in a different way.

In order to assess a Learner's level of understanding, we must ask a question to which we know the answer. Thus, in response to "which one is green?", 'orange' is incorrect. However, there is yet a problem with this approach! If I ask a question to which I know the answer, I can subconsciously give the Learner cues as to the correct response! Therefore, I need to ask a question where:

          -     there is a only one right answer
          -     I do not know the answer!

How can you ask a question when you do not know the answer? It's actually easier to do than it, at first, appears. I show a Learner an apple: I hold it up, allow the Learner to smell it, to feel it, I say the name and then I replace it among the orange and the blackcurrants and move away. A second member of staff approaches, this staff member has not seen which fruit I picked out to show the Learner. The staff member asks the Learner to indicate which fruit s/he has been shown. Can the Learner pick out the apple? What does it mean if s/he picks out the orange instead?

          -     The Learner wants a drink of orange juice;
          -     The Learner simply forgot what was shown originally;
          -     The Learner knew it was apple but got the timing wrong;
          -     The Learner doesn't understand what is required;
          -     None of the above;
          -     Could be any of the above.

It actually tells us nothing. It could be any of the above. It does not mean that the Learner doesn't understand apple, or what is required. Failing to perform the task tells us nothing apart from the fact that the Learner did not perform the task. If we did ten such tasks and the Learner failed to get one correct it would still tell us nothing. However, on the other hand, if the Learner gets it correct, it tells us a lot! If the Learner gets it correct 8 out of ten times we would being to assume that s/he was cognizant of the choice and the system, and that the two incorrect answers were simply incorrect answers (we might assume a reason as to why two were incorrect but it would be an assumption - we would not know, from the range of possible reasons, why the Learner was incorrect). Therefore, it is better to concentrate on the positive than than the negative! We could hypothesise a possible reason for an incorrect response and make an adjustment to our methodology and re-test to see if it had an effect but, even if it did, there would be no guarantee that this was the reason for the initial incorrect responses.

Thus:
          -     I ask the Learner to pick out the APPLE and to tell another member of staff 'APPLE';
          -    I ask the other (blind) member of staff to come and work with the Learner and to watch and see what is selected;
          -     BUT I do not inform the member of staff which item I asked the Learner to pick out.
- When a selection is made, the blind member of staff informs me.

If the Learner produces a correct selection, either it was a complete fluke or the Learner has the necessary skills. Repeated trials will eliminate the possibility of a fluke.

Yes but my Learner forgets the one I picked out. That does not mean he cannot do the task. No, as has already been stated, it doesn't but it tends to suggest it. However, there is a way to overcome the memory barrier. Find an old box and place a second, similar APPLE in the box such that the Learner can see it at all times BUT the assessing member of staff cannot. Now, memory is not an issue, the Learner’s task is to tell the staff member which of the three fruits s/he can see within the box.

Note: it is a strange thing but some members of staff may view Learner failure as their failure. That is, in the above (box) scenario they will take a sneaky peak and then assist the Learner to get the answer 'correct' and report back a successful 9 out of ten trials! Thus it is important that you let the 'bind' assessing member of staff know that it is NOT them you are assessing and it is OK for then to report back what appears to be a Learner failure. It literally helps no-one if we assist a Learner to the 'correct' response: not the staff and certainly not the Learner.

10. Be Prompt

Any verbal prompt should focus on the POLE and not on the specific simple AAC device. Thus, one should not say, "Come on John hit the iPad" but rather address the POLE; "Come on John, you need to say 'ball' and then Mary will get it for you." While this is considered good practice, it should not be the primary method of prompting or cueing a Learner. If the Learner is being (t)asked to say or do something through a simple AAC system, a number of things have to happen. The Learner has to:

- attend to the request;
- listen to the words in the request and try and make sense of what is
being asked;
- figure out a respond to the request;
- locate the appropriate symbol (or symbols) on the overlay;
- send commands to the muscles in his/her body to perform the actions;
- perform the actions in the correct order.

For some Learners this may take a little time. If in that period of time, when the Learner is focused on the task, a staff member begins to speak to the Learner, to where is the Learner focus moved? It is moved from the task and to the staff member! The Learner is is now engaged in making sense of a new command! Therefore, we should NOT interrupt a Learner who is focused on a task once the original request has been made unless we believe that the Learner has lost focus. Hence, a focus period of (at least) ten seconds should be allowed before any prompt is given. Many Learners require even more 'thinking time'.

When prompts are delivered, they should begin with the least invasive or intrusive (unless there is a reason to begin with the most invasive or intrusive). That means, we should begin with a prompt that is specifically designed not take the Learner focus away from the task in hand but, rather, draw specific attention back to it. Such an Increasing Hierarchy prompting mechanism might begin with the staff's use of a laser pen (for Learners who have no problem with vision) moving the point of light around the general area of the BIGmack or switch. Laser pens are ideal for this purpose and are readily available cheaply over the internet from such stockists as Amazon for example. Some laser pens even can be set to provide a spread of multiple points of coloured light to highlight a surface area. If a Learner would have a problem with seeing the laser light(s) then another sensory area must be considered. What is going to be the least intrusive for this Learner that will prompt to interaction with the switch. Perhaps some form of clicker device could be used from the proximal area of the simple AAC system.

Increasing and Decreasing Prompt Hierarchies.

Prompting is a method of helping Learners in acquiring a skill. Prompts should only be used when necessary and, then, only for a period that is sufficient to assist the Learner. There should always be a plan to phase out all prompts over a period of time otherwise the Learner may become prompt dependent which is yet another feature of passivity. Prompts should only be used after (at the very minimum) a delay of ten seconds to allow the Learner time to process the initial staff request, form and act upon a response.

An increasing prompt hierarchy is primarily used where a Learner has already learned the basic skills involved in the task. It involves Learner cues that become increasingly more invasive with time until perhaps, finally, the facilitator uses hand-under-hand techniques to guide the Learner to the desired action. The images (left) attempt to portray such an increasing prompt hierarchy beginning with the least invasive and moving (down) following the the arrows to the most invasive. It should NOT be assumed that this is a comprehensive set of images covering all forms of prompting! It is not. It is merely an attempt to illustrate one of many possible increasing prompt hierarchies. Furthermore, in the cartoon illustrated part, the facilitator is using a verbal prompt badly. The attention is taken away from the simple AAC system and there is no focus on the POLE. Furthermore, the added comment is not helpful, highly unprofessional , and in-part wrong! There are much better ways to use a verbal prompt!

A decreasing prompt hierarchy is primarily used where a Learner has not yet been taught even the basic skills involved in the required task. Thus, it might be necessary to begin with the most invasive technique and plan to fade all cues and prompt over time. In such a situation for example, it may be necessary to use a hand under hand technique to help a enable a Learner to realise that touching a particular thing causes something that they like to occur (BEST POLE). However, if the Learner does explore things that are placed in his/her personal space, this technique might very quickly be replaced with AAA (Accidental Actuation Awareness): that is, the Learner naturally explores and, by accident, happens to touch the area that enables the BEST POLE. Repeated AAAs (it is hoped) increase the awareness of the link between the touching of a particular surface area that is marked by a particular symbol and the activation of a particular BEST POLE. How would we know when a Learner has achieved this 'eureka' moment? If;
- we baseline the number of times that the Learner accidentally activates the
POLE on the first day, then;
- compare this to subsequent sessions in which the system is used with the
POLE and;
- the number of activations is increased on most occasions;
then
- we might conclude that the Learner is beginning to understand that C causes E

Hand Under Hand Technique

When working with a dog, it is generally known that it is of no use pointing to something to which you want to draw the animal's attention. The dog does not understand the conventions involved and will typically attend to the pointing hand itself rather than at the thing to which the hand is pointing. People experiencing learning difficulties also may not understand such conventions and, if a hand is used to assist their learning, may attend to the facilitators hand and not to the task.

Thus, it is important to make the use of a facilitator's hand in assisting a Learner's movement as non-invasive and non-intrusive as possible. When performing such actions it is considered best practice to:

- ensure that the Learner is aware that you intend to assist them by
moving into their personal space and touching them;
- work with bony structures such as the wrist, elbow, shoulder rather than
flesh or muscle which can be more painful;
- work hand under hand: that is, support the Learner's wrist (for example) from
underneath NOT from above as is typical in interactions of this type.
- not to use such prompting as a means of prevention of Learner activity:

"For many learners their social history has offered few opportunities to self-select desired objects, people, or activities. At mealtimes, plates are prepared and distributed. Additional servings are provided automatically. Coats are handed out and doors opened when it is time to go outside. Thus, throughout the day, the caregivers do virtually everything for the learners. Initially, some learners may have attempted to self-select items or activities of interest, but were actively encouraged not to do so. For example, while at a restaurant, the learner may reach for a pitcher of milk. Fearing a spill, the caregiver may quickly intervene by prompting the learner’s hand away from the pitcher. Over time, the learner’s self-selecting behaviour may be extinguished" (Reichle, J. 1991 p. 141)

When working hand under hand in this manner, the Learner is not focusing on the facilitator's hand and will not find it painful. The Learner can be 'facilitated' to promote success with early simple AAC interactions.

Prompt Cueing
Prompt cueing is the technique through which the range of possible answers / alternatives/ responses is reduced to focus a Learner and reduce the complexity of the task. For example, if a Learner was asked to pick out a particular symbol from an overlay and appeared to be finding it very difficult, the Facilitator might say, "Here's a clue. The symbol is in the top row'. Progressive Prompt Cueing occurs when a facilitator continues to narrow the focus until the Learner can achieve a correct response.

Prompt-free strategies
A prompt-free strategies (See Mirenda, P. & Santogrossi, J. 1985; Mirenda, P. & Dattilo, J. 1987) in simple AAC involves waiting for a user to make a deliberate or accidental touch of a symbol before responding accompanied by further feedback:

"Whenever an accidental or deliberate touch occurred, the instructor provided contingent feedback in the form of a 15-second activation of the leisure item represented by the photographed touched. In addition, both spoken and motoric feedback were provided in the form of a confirming statement ("Oh you want the _; Okay, I’ll turn it on”) accompanied by hand-over-hand assistance to touch the photograph again. This second touch was not a prompt: it occurred for feedback purposes only after the subject had touched the photograph spontaneously." (Mirenda, P. & Dattilo, J. 1987)

For example, an SSS might be positioned such that a Learner is likely to activate its surface accidentally every once in a while. The SSS is set to make a request for a known BEST POLE. On hearing such a request, a staff member provides the BEST and praising the Learner for 'asking'. It is hoped that over time, the Learner will come to understand an association between the (initially) accidental activations of the system and the subsequent rewards.

Prompt Dependency

".. it is therefore important that the communication does not become responsive, i.e. that the individual answers only when spoken to by others or takes the ‘initiative’ after being urged to do so. Even though it is unintentional on the part of the person who plans the training, the teaching may reinforce a child’s dependence." (Von Tetzchner, S. & Martinsen, H. 1992)

Prompt Dependency is a concern in the education of persons with disabilities (Oppenheimer, Saunders, & Spradlin, 1993). Prompts are used in education in an attempt to encourage communication, motivate Learners to make progress, minimize Learner mistakes and increase the likelihood that Learner responses will occur. Ideally, over a period of time, such controlling prompts will be faded and the Learner will be able to work independently (Fisher, Kodak, & Moore, 2007). However, some Learners continue to rely on such prompts and little if any progress is made on fading out such need. This phenomenon is what is known as prompt dependency: the Learner comes to rely on prompts from Significant Others in order to undertake any work. It is beyond the scope of this web page to cover remedial strategies for prompt dependency other than it is best avoid through careful planning and the use of prompt fading.

Prompt Delay / Time Delay techniques

Prompting time delay prompt procedures are different from increasing or decreasing prompt hierarchies in that, instead of removing prompts by progressing through a hierarchy, prompts are removed by increasingly delaying them in time. Progressive Time/Prompt Delays allow an increasing interval schedule between a request from a staff member to a Learner and providing a prompt. Thus, if a Learner was asked to 'show me the symbol for 'xxx' and the Learner failed to respond, the staff member might immediately prompt. However, on asking the same or a similar question at a later time, the staff member would delay a second or two before any prompting occurred. The delay increases during the period of tuition with the hope that the Learner will feel confident enough to provide a response with any assistance..

Interesting YouTube video. I think it is OK but there are a few techniques shown here that do not correspond with my ideas above and would concern me a little. You must make up your own mind which is the better.

See Also:

Abramson, L.Y., Seligman, M.E., & Teasdale, J.D. (1978). Learned Helplessness in Humans: Critique and Reformulation, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Volume 87 (1), pp. 49 - 74

Akmanoglu, N., & Batu, S. (2004). Teaching pointing to numerals to individuals with autism using simultaneous prompting. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, Volume 39, pp. 326 - 336.

Ault, M.J., Wolery, M., Gast, D.L., Doyle, P.M.(1988). Comparison of response prompting procedures in teaching numeral identification to
autistic subjects. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Volume 18, pp. 627 - 636.

Baine, D. (1981). Using prompting and fading techniques to instruct handicapped learners. British Columbia Journal of Special Education, Volume 5, pp. 1 – 12.

Basil, C. (1992).Social interaction and learned helplessness in severely disabled children, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 8 (3), pp. 188 - 199

Bradley-Johnson, S., Sunderman, P., & Merle Johnson, C. (1983). Comparison of delayed prompting and fading for teaching preschoolers easily confused letters & numbers. Journal of School Psychology, Volume 21 (4), pp. 327 – 335

Carbone, V.J., Sweeney-Kerwin, E.J., Attanasio, V., Kasper, T. (2010). Increasing the vocal responses of children with autism and developmental disabilities using manual sign mand training and prompt delay. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 43 (4), pp. 705 - 709.

Demchak, M. (1990). Response prompting and fading methods: A review. American Journal of Mental Retardation. Volume 94, pp. 603 – 615.

Doyle, P.M., Wolery, M., Ault, M.J., & Gast, D.L. (1988). System of least prompts: A literature review of procedural parameters. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 13, pp. 28 – 40

Falcomata, T.S., Ringdahl, J.E., Christensen, T.J., Boelter, E.W. (2010). An evaluation of prompt schedules and mand preference during functional communication training. The Behavior Analyst Today, Volume 11 (1), pp. 77 - 84

Fisher, W.W., Kodak, T., & Moore, J.W. (2007). Embedding an identity-matching task within a prompting hierarchy to facilitate acquisition of conditional discriminations in children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 40, pp. 489 - 499

Gast, D.L, Doyle, P.M, Wolery, M, & Ault, M.J. (1991). Assessing the acquisition of incidental information by secondary-age students with mental retardation: comparison of response prompting strategies. American Journal of Mental Retardation. Volume 96, pp. 63 – 80.

Glendenning, N.J, Adams, G L, & Sternberg, L. (1983).Comparison of prompt sequences. American Journal of Mental Deficiency. Volume 88, pp. 321 – 325.

Godby, S., Gast, D.L., & Wolery, M. (1987). A comparison of time delay and system of least prompts in teaching object identification.
Research in Developmental Disabilities, Volume 8 (2), pp. 283-305.

Handen, B. & Zane, T. (1987). Delayed prompting: A review of procedural variations and results, Research in Developmental Disabilities,
Volume 8, pp. 307 - 330

Heckaman, K.A., Alber, S., Hooper, S., & Heward, W.L. (1998). A comparison of least-to-most prompts and progressive time delay on the
disruptive behavior of students with autism. Journal of Behavioral Education, Volume 8, pp. 171 - 201

Karsten, A.M. & Carr, J.E. (2009). The effects of differential reinforcement of unprompted responding on skill acquisition of children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, Volume 42, pp. 327 - 334.

Leaf, J.B., Sheldon, J.B., Sherman, J.A. (2010). Comparison of simultaneous prompting and no-no prompting in two-choice discrimination learning with children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 43 (2), pp. 215-228.

Libby, M.E., Weiss, J.S., Bancroft, S., & Ahearn, W.H. (2008). A comparison of most-to-least and least-to-most prompting on acquisition of solitary play skills. Behavior Analysis in Practice, Volume 1, pp. 37 - 43.

Maciag, K.G, Schuster, J.W, Collins, B.C,, & Cooper J.T. (200). Training adults with moderate and severe mental retardation in vocational skills using a simultaneous prompting procedure. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities. Volume 35, pp. 306 – 316.

Mirenda, P. & Santogrossi, J. (1985). A prompt-free strategy to teach pictorial communication system use, AAC, Volume 1, pp. 143 - 150

Mirenda, P. & Dattilo, J. (1987). Instructional techniques in alternative communication for students with severe intellectual handicaps, AAC, Volume 3 (3), pp. 143 - 152

Mirenda, P. & Iacono,T. (1988). Strategies for promoting augmentative and alternative communication in natural contexts with students with autism, Focus on Autistic Behavior, Volume 3 (4), pp. 1 - 16

Mirenda, P. & Schuler, A. (1988). Augmenting communication for persons with autism: Issues and strategies, Topics in Language Disorders, Volume 9 (1), pp. 24 - 43

Murzynski, N.T., & Bourret, J.C. (2007). Combining video modeling and least-to-most prompting for establishing response chains. Behavioral Interventions, Volume 22, pp. 147 - 152.

Olenick, D L., & Pear, J.J. (1980). The differential reinforcement of correct responses to probes and prompts n picture-name training with severely retarded children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 13, pp. 77 - 89.

Oppenheimer, M., Saunders, R.R., & Spradlin, J.E. (1993). Investigating the generality of the delayed-prompt effect. Research in Developmental Disabilities, Volume 14, pp. 425 - 444.

Reichle, J. (1984). Using response prompts to teach early communication skills to severely handicapped learners, Unpublished manuscript,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis

Reichle, J. (1991). Developing communicative exchanges, In - Implementing Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Strategies for Learners with Severe Disabilities, Reichle, J., York, J., & Sigafoos, J. (Eds.), pp. 133 - 156, Paul H. Brookes Publishing

Reichle, J., York, J., & Sigafoos, J. (Eds.)(1991). Implementing Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Strategies for Learners with Severe Disabilities, Paul H. Brookes Publishing

Schreibman, L., & Charlop, M.H. (1981). S+ versus S- fading in prompting procedures with autistic children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, Volume 31, pp. 508-520

Sigafoos, J., Mustonen, T., DePaepe, P., Reichle, J., & York, J. (1991). Defining the array of instructional prompts for teaching communication skills In - Implementing AAC: Strategies for learners with severe disabilities, pp. 173 - 192, REICHLE J., YORK J., & SIGAFOOS J. (Eds.), Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Steege, M., Wacker, D., & McMahon, C. (1987). Evaluation of the effectiveness and efﬁciency of two stimulus prompt strategies with severely handicapped students. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 18, pp. 293 – 299.

Touchette, P.E. & Howard, J.S. (1984). Errorless learning: Reinforcement contingencies and stimulus control transfer in delayed prompting. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 17, pp. 175 - 188
.
Van Laarhoven, T., Kraus, E., Karpman, K., Nizzi, R., Valentino, J. (2010). A comparison of picture and video prompts in teach daily living skills to individuals with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, Volume 25 (4), pp. 195 - 208.

Von Tetzchner, S. & Martinsen, H. (1992). Introduction to symbolic and augmentative communication, San Diego: CA: Singular Publishing

Walls, R. T., Ellis, W. D., Zane, T., & Vanderpoel, S. J. (1979). Tactile, auditory, and visual prompting in teaching complex assembly tasks. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, Volume 14, pp. 120 –130

West, E.A., & Billingsley, F. (2001). Improving the System of Least Prompts: A Comparison of Procedural Variations, Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, Volume 40 (2), pp. 131 – 144

Wilkinson, K. & Romski, M.(1995). Responsiveness of male adolescents with mental retardation to input from non-disabled peers: The summoning power of comments, questions, and directive prompts, Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, Volume 38, pp. 1045 - 1053

Wolery, M., Ault, M. J., & Doyle, P. M. (1992). Teaching students with moderate to severe disabilities: Use of response prompting strategies. New York: Longman.

Wolery, M., Ault, M.J., Gast, D. L., Doyle, P.M., & Griffen, A.K. (1990). Comparison of constant time delay and the system of least prompts in teaching chained tasks. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, Volume 25, pp. 243 – 257.

Wolery, M., Gast, D.L., Kirk, K., & Schuster, J. (1988). Fading extra-stimulus prompts with autistic children using time delay. Education
and Treatment of Children, Volume 11 (1), pp. 29 - 44.

YAACK (2012). http://aac.unl.edu/yaack/d3.html#d3b

Yilmaz, I., Konukman, F., Birkan, B., Yanardag, M. (2010). Effects of most to least prompting on teaching simple progression swimming skill for children with autism. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, Volume 45 (3), pp. 440-448.

11. Better Behaviour Buttons

"Where there is failure to develop language or where speech is rendered unintelligible through neurological or other organic disorder, lack of verbal communication with others can have far-reaching effects on many aspects of a child’s development. Reduced ability to comprehend and use language will hinder cognitive and social development and there is known to be a high incidence of emotional and behavioural problems among such children."
(Dalton, P. 1994 Page 2)

"Observing a student who has severe disabilities engaging in a tantrum often brings with it a sense of frustration; an inability to comfort or respond in a satisfactory way. Parents, teachers, and other caregivers frequently report that they wish the students could just 'tell us what they want'." (Durand, V. 1991 page 29)

"The principle of appropriate listening states that when people communicate through challenging behavior, sometimes the most appropriate response is to 'listen' to what they are saying and change the situation accordingly." (Mirenda, P. 1993, page 7)

"The principle of functional equivalence states that when people communicate through challenging behavior, sometimes the most appropriate response is to teach an alternative way to communicate the same message." (Mirenda, P. 1993, page 8)

"D’s communication board was successful not only in giving her a means for communicating wants and needs but also in contributing seemingly to a decrease of her display of maladaptive behaviours." (Robinson, L. & Owens, R. 1995)

Simple AAC systems can be a very useful way of helping to avoid behaviours that some staff may find challenging. Letting Significant Others know when you are getting upset or feeling angry or just need to leave the room can prevent a small situation form developing into a big one. Perhaps a simple AAC system could be mounted permanently in a room such that any member of the class capable of accessing it could make their feelings known to staff members such that an appropriate course of action can be taken.

We all get frustrated from time to time. Usually we have a means to resolve that frustration which is actually not the originating cause of the problem. We may try to find a calming place or listen to some music or eat a whole bar of chocolate! We need actually to do two things: address the cause of our frustration and also find our own best-ever means of frustration relief. Using any form of violence to alleviate frustration may make you feel a little better but has been shown to be counter-productive. Thus, we should aim to find those POLEs that alleviate a Learner's frustrations while also trying to ascertain the originating cause of the frustration and taking steps to address it for the future. Simple AAC can help in both these areas - so use it!

The 'I am getting angry' twenty location grid from Unlimiter's SimpleAAC app for the iPad which comes with hundreds of such ready-made (but customisable such that it is possible to change the items that will resolve the situation) grids at 10 different location sizes. the Learner can tell a staff member that s/he is getting angry and what s/he wants to do about it.

See also:

Bird, F., Dores, P., Moniz, D., & Robonson, J. (1989). Reducing severe aggressive and self-injurious behaviors with functional communication training: Direct, collateral and generalized results, American Journal of Mental Retardation, Volume 94, pp. 37 - 48

Blair, N. (1975), A Premackian approach to developing communication in autistic children: A comparison of the effects of symbol versus speech training on the behaviour of autistic children, Doctoral Dissertation, Kent State University

Brooks, A.R. (1991). Behaviour problems and power relationship, Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, Volume 22 (2), pp. 89 - 91

Brown, F. (1991). Creative daily scheduling: A non-intrusive approach to challenging behaviors in community residences, The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 16, pp. 75 - 84

Carr, E.G. (1977). The motivation of self-injurious behaviour: A review of some hypotheses. Psychological Bulletin, Volume 84, pp. 800 - 816.

Carr, E.G., & Durand, V.M. (1985). Reducing behaviour problems through functional communication training. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, Volume 18, pp. 111 - 126.

Carr, E.G., & Durand, V.M. (1985). The social-communicative basis of severe behavior problems in children, In - Theoretical issues in behavior therapy, Reiss, S. & Bootzin, R. (Eds.), New York: Academic Press

Carr, E.G., Levin, L., McConnachie, G., Carlson, J., Kemp, D., & Smith, C. (1994). Communication based intervention for problem
behaviour. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes

Creedon, M. (Ed.) (1975). Appropriate behavior through communications: A new program in simultaneous language,  Available from the Developmental Institute, Humana Hospital, 31st at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60616

Donnellan, A., Mirenda, P., Mesaros, R. & Fassbender, L. (1984). Analyzing the communicative functions of aberrant behavior, Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 9, pp. 201 - 212

Donnellan, A. & Leary, M. (1995). Movement differences and diversity in autism/mental retardation: appreciating and accommodating people with communication and behaviour challenges. Madison: DRI Press

Doss, L.S., & Reichle, J.(1989). Establishing communicative alternatives to the emission of socially motivated excess behavior: A
review, Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 14, pp. 101 - 112

Doss, L.S., & Reichle, J. (1991). Replacing excessive behaviour with an initial communicative repertoire. In J. Reichle, J. York, & J. Sigafoos (Eds.), Implementing augmentative and alternative communication: Strategies for learners with severe disabilities (pp. 215-237). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Duckett, J. (1977). Adaptive and maladaptive behaviour of idiot savants, American Journal of Mental Deficiency, Volume 82, pp. 308 - 311

Dunlap, G., Kern-Dunlap, L., Clarke, S., & Robbins, F. (1991). Functional assessment, curricular revision, and severe behavior problems, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 24, pp. 387 - 397

Dunlap, G. & Kern, L. (1993), Assessment and intervention for children within the instructional curriculum, In - Communicative alternatives to challenging behavior: Integrating functional assessment and intervention strategies, Reichle, J. & Wacker, D. (Eds.), Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes
Durand, V.M. & Kishi, G. (1987). Reducing severe behavior problems among persons with dual sensory impairments: An evaluation of a
technical assistance model, Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 12, pp. 2 - 10

Durand, V.M. & Crimmins, D. (1988), Identifying the variables maintaining self-injurious, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
Volume 18, pp. 99 - 117

Durand, V.M. (1990). Severe behaviour problems: A  functional communication training approach. New York: Guilford Press

Durand, V.M. (1991a). If only they could talk: Reducing challenging behaviour through Augmentative Communication, 12th Southeast Annual Augmentative Communication Conference Proceedings, pp. 28 - 34, Birmingham, Alabama: SEAC

Durand, V.M. &  Carr, E. (1991b), Functional communication training to reduce challenging behavior: Maintenance and application in new settings, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 24, pp. 387 - 397

Durand, V.M. (1993). Functional communication training using assistive devices: Effects on challenging behavior and affect, AAC, Volume 9 (3), pp. 168- 176

Durand, V.M.  Berotti, D., & Weiner, J. (1993). Functional communication training: Factor affecting effectiveness, generalization, and
maintenance, In - Communicative alternatives to challenging behavior: Integrating functional assessment and intervention strategies
Reichle, J. & Wacker, D. (Eds.), Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes

Durand, V.M., & Merges, E. (2001). Functional communication training: A contemporary behaviour analytic technique for problem behaviour. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, Volume 16, pp. 110 - 119.

Dyer, K., Dunlap, G., & Winterling, V. (1990). Effects of choice making on the serious problem behaviours of students with severe handicaps, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 23, pp. 515 - 524

Farrell, P. (1991) 'Behavioural and interactive teaching for children with severe learning difficulties: Match or mismatch?' Educational and Child Psychology, Volume 8(2): pp. 61-8.

Gordon, N. (1991). The relationship between language and behaviour, Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, Volume 33, pp. 86 - 89

Guess, D. & Siegel-Causey. E. (1985). Behavioral control and education of severely handicapped students: Who’s doing what to whom?
And why? In - Severe mental retardation: From theory to practice (pp. 230 - 244) Bricker, D. & Filller, J. (Eds.), Reston, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children

Hewett, D. (1996). Communication - or the lack of it: the most significant factor in behaviour? Paper presented at ICAN Study Day
Social-Communication Interaction: Effects on Behaviour, November 23rd 1996

Horner, R., & Budd, C. (1985). Acquisition of manual sign use: Collateral reduction of maladaptive behavior and factors limiting generalization, Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, Volume 20, pp. 39 - 47

Horner, R., Sprague, J., O’Brien, M., & Heathfield, L. (1990). The role of response efficiency in the reduction of problem behaviours through functional equivalence training: A case study. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 15, pp. 91-97.

Hsu-Min Chiang (2008). Expressive communication of children with autism: the use of challenging behaviour, Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, Volume 52 (11), pp. 966 – 972

Hunt, P., Alwell, M., & Goetz, L. (1988). Acquisition of conversational skills and the reduction of inappropriate social interaction
behaviors, Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 13, pp. 20 - 27

Maurice, C., Green, G., & Luce, S. (1996). Behavioural intervention for young children with autism: a manual for parents and professionals
Austin, Texas: Pro ed

Mirenda, P. (1997). Supporting individuals with challenging behavior through functional communication training and AAC: research review,
AAC, Volume 13 (4) , pp. 207 - 225

Peck, C. (1985). Increasing opportunities for social control by children with autism and severe handicaps: Effects on student behavior and perceived classroom climate, Journal of the association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 10, pp. 183 - 193

Piepgrass, L. (1996). Beyond doing, beyond managing: Responding to challenging behaviour, Presentation at 7th Biennial ISAAC Conference Communication ...... naturally, August 1996, Vancouver, Canada

Reichle, J. & Wacker, D. (Eds.)(1993), Communicative alternatives to challenging behavior: Integrating functional assessment and
intervention strategies, Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes

Reid, B. (1989). Research into practice: Communication and behaviour, Communicating Together, Volume 7 (4),pp. 19 - 20

Remington, B. (1994), AAC and behaviour analysis, AAC, Volume 10 (1), pp. 2 - 13

Robiinson, L.A. & Owens, R.E. Jr. (1995). Clinical notes: Functional augmentative communication and positive behavior change
AAC, Volume 11, Number 4, December 1995, pp. 207 - 211

Vaughn, B. & Horner, R. (1995). Effects of concrete versus verbal choice systems on problem behavior, AAC, Volume 11 (2), pp. 89 - 92

12. Cause and Effect

A cause is the reason something happens. An effect is that which happens as a result. We may not realise that C causes E depending on the circumstances and our level of understanding. We know that sunburn is the effect caused by staying out in the sun for too long without adequate protection. There must have been a point in history when mankind made this connection. At some point, someone must have made the connection between walking out in the sun without clothing and the sore sensation that followed. However, if our cognitive capacity is severely diminished then we may have great difficulty in making such a connection.

For some Learners the understanding of cause and effect is problematic. However, in order to progress this understanding is a milestone that they must achieve. Simple AAC can assist a Learner to understand that specific actions (activating the surface or a cell on a simple AAC system) can cause something else (event E) to occur.

There are some simple AAC systems (such as those in the AbleNet range for example) that permit an external battery-operated or mains operated (through an interface) toy or device to be attached such that the external device can be operated by the simple AAC system. If the POLE (normally O for object) that is attached to a simple AAC system is a BEST (Best Ever Stimulating Thing) for a Learner then the activation of the simple AAC system causes the POLE to operate. Of course, the Learner may not realise this at first. However, after many such occurrences then there is a chance that the 'penny will drop' and the Learner will come to associate the simple AAC operation with the functioning of the attached device.

Those simple AAC systems that do not have sockets to allow the operation of external devices (these systems would include [presently] the iPad) can still be used in a similar manner. As a BEST is, by definition, a POLE and we are trying to effect a BEST through the action of a simple AAC device, it follows that the control of a POLE is all that is required. Can we put a Person or an Object or a Location or an Event at the control of a simple AAC device? Sure we can! Even if the the device has no connecting socket? Yes! It is an AAC system after all and if I cannot control a thing directly via a wire (or wireless) link then I can still ask for it. The difference is that the former requires only me and the POLE while the latter requires me and the POLE and a facilitator (I have to ask someone to obtain the POLE or to do something to the POLE,; I cannot do it directly myself). Actually, the former is not strictly true; it is not just me and the POLE because someone has to set all that up for me originally. If I can use a simple AAC system to ask for a BEST POLE then again I can use the system as a means of establishing cause and effect. Where's the catch? Yes, there is a catch! If you have to ask someone then that person must be available! S/he must be available at the time when you ask and that is not always predictable. Imagine a Learner asking for a favourite toy and no person there to provide the toy. What would be the likely outcome? There would likely be frustration for the learner which could result in behaviours that staff may find challenging. The Learner is also unlikely to understand the connection between cause (activating a cell on the overlay to ask for a POLE) and the effect (obtaining the POLE or effecting the POLE). Also, and perhaps more damaging, the Learner is likely to (begin to) reject the simple AAC as worthless in his or her world.

Let's consider the pieces of the above equation: there is the Learner, the Facilitator, the simple AAC system (and its speech output on activation) and the BEST POLE. If a facilitator is not available to respond on demand by the Learner through the simple AAC medium there can be serious consequences. Therefore it would seem that we need to make the facilitator always instantly available. Indeed, this is what would happen in a perfect world but we do not live in a perfect world and Facilitators are not always instantly available: so what can we do about it? The solution would seem like common sense but it cannot be because we have witnessed in many educational establishments all across the world situation in which a Learner is using an SGD (Speech Generating Device) to make a request and no one is taking any notice because they're busy with other children or with other matters! If a facilitator cannot be available to respond to a request from a Learner via an SGD then the simple AAC system (or the particular overlay of the simple AAC system) should not be in use at that time. In other words, when staff are available then we can make the overlay available when staff are not then so something else. Of course, we have to accept that we cannot just sit in a chair and call to our partners to do something on our behalf and expect them to drop everything that they are doing and obey our requests! However, we do not have significant learning difficulties and we could easily get up out of the chair and go and do the thing ourselves; our Learners are unlikely to be in this position. It is also a truism that individuals need to learn to accept that all things cannot be provided instantly: parents will not simply buy every expensive toy that a child demands just because they demand it. Again there is a difference here, We are talking about pragmatic skills. Pragmatic skills, such as knowing there is a time and place and particular method to ask for something, comes after learning the name of the something, learning about the something, and learning to put the name of that something together with other words in a manner that other people can understand to effect a response! Pragmatics can wait: there are more fundamental things at stake here for this level of Learners. Pragmatics will become important but not at this time. Thus, if we cannot provide the response we must ensure that the Learner cannot make the demand. Demands without responses are counter productive!

OK, so our Learner begins to activate an SSS to operate an externally attached toy. Can we assume a knowledge of cause and effect? Actually, no because contiguousness is not synonymous with causality!
"Contiguousness is not synonymous with causality" What does that mean?
Put simply, it states that because E follows C, it does not mean that C is the cause of E.
A butterfly is sitting on a flower on a bush and Sam appears to be looking at it. The butterfly moves its wings and Sam seems to smile. We naturally assume that Sam is cognisant of the butterfly and the motion of its wings and, it is this that is causing Sam's joy. However, that is not necessarily the case. Sam could be smiling at something else entirely, or at something that happens at the same time that the butterfly moves its wings. Sam could even be smiling in response to our smiles. Of course, Sam could be aware of the butterfly and be attracted to its movements but we cannot simply assume all of this. What evidence would be further proof of Sam's awareness?

-     every time that the butterfly moves its wings Sam smiles;
           -     the staff with Sam are not standing such that Sam can see them and the butterfly;
           -     when the butterfly flies away, Sam stops smiling;
           -     if another butterfly lands subsequently and Sam begins to smile once again.

Does it matter? Yes, it does! If we assume a cause and effect relationship, and we build further learning on such 'knowledge', then Sam may be confused. Our task will be the greater and there is a risk that we may make further 'assumptions of understanding' which will only serve to compound matters even further.

A simple AAC system is placed in the personal space of a Learner such that it controls a toy dog. The Learner activates the simple AAC system. The dog moves and barks. Does the Learner understand that:

          -     s/he is controlling the toy?
          -     the simple AAC system is the switch for the toy?
          -     both the above?
          -     none of the above?

None of the above! Cognition simply cannot be assumed on the basis of a single interpretation of a Learner's actions even if that action is repeated. There are other interpretations of the Learner's actions which produced the same results:

         -     it was an accident. As the simple AAC system is in the Learner's personal space, s/he is going to activate from time to
time simply by chance alone.
         -     the Learner is attracted to the object (AAC system) in his/her personal space and is simply exploring it. The Learner likes the
sounds it makes. The Learner makes no connection to the barking dog.
         -     the Learner has learnt to fly-swat (see below) the simple AAC system when it is placed in personal space.
         -     the Learner does not like this thing in his/her space and is trying to push it away;
         -     the Learner is being prompted by staff;
         -     other.

Activating a simple AAC system to turn on another item does not, in and of itself, evidence cause and effect skills.

Why not?

- Some Learners will interact with anything that is placed in an accessible
position in their personal space;
- Some Learners have learnt to 'fly-swat';
- Some Learners may be just trying to push it away;
- Some Learners may be attracted to the colour, or the shape, or the symbol.
- Some Learners will have activated by accident: indeed, that is something
we can use to good effect.

It is only if we can eliminate these other possibilities that we can can state confidently the Learner is making a connection between C and E and understands that his/her actions that are causing and controlling some external aspect of the environment However, if we have previously established cause and effect cognition in a particular Learner then we are on safer ground in assuming the particular Learner is making a new link but we cannot be sure. However, the more evidence we can gather to establish, beyond reasonable doubt, that a Learner is making such connections, the better for all, especially the Learner her/himself. Assuming such a connection when, actually, none is present, and moving on to new more complex tasks, is likely to be a recipe for failure.

How then do we establish cause and effect beyond reasonable doubt? The answers lie in the Learner's behaviour. If the Learner acts in certain ways then it is logical to assume, unless we can prove otherwise, that cause and effect is established. What are these 'certain ways'? They include:

- the Learner makes repeated attempts to activate the simple AAC system but
ceases all further attempts when successful and the POLE is achieved;
- the Learner only re-activates the Simple AAC system when the POLE has ceased.
The Learner makes no attempt to activate the POLE while the POLE is active.
- the Learner goes out of his/her way to activate the simple AAC system in order to
achieve the POLE;
- the Learner locates a 'hidden' SSS in order to operate a POLE;
- the Learner is consistent in the above.
- other possible explanations for behaviour have been considered and eliminated.

'Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence'.

What does this mean? Put more simply, it asserts it cannot be assumed that a Learner's failure to respond to or perform any task (absence of evidence) does not prove an incapacity or inability to do so (evidence of absence). If Sam is asked to identify an item in a picture by choosing from one of three symbols on a simple AAC system and fails, it does not follow that Sam is incapable of doing it, or does not comprehend the item in question, or does not recognise the symbols. There are other possible reasons for Sam's 'failure' in the task:

- Sam was not feeling well;
- Sam did not like the staff member involved;
- Sam was distracted by some other matter in the day;
- Sam was upset about something;
- Sam did not understand the instructions;
- other;

While we cannot prove a Learner does not understand or is incapable of performing a specific task, it is possible to do the opposite: we can show that Sam DOES understand. That is a much more positive stance to take: rather than being negative regarding a specific Learner skill, we are able to claim a positive position. How are we able to do this? Returning to our example of Sam's choice between three items. If Sam not only responds but responds correctly and on more than one occasion then we can be more confident in stating that Sam is able to make an association between a picture and an object. Why only more confident? Why not totally confident? The reason for the hesitation is because there are other possible explanations for Sam's success:

- it was by pure chance;
- the 'correct response was always placed in Sam's 'preferred' position
(Sam always goes for the item on the right);
- staff were providing Sam with contextual cues (wittingly or unwittingly);
- staff were interpreting Sam's responses and rationalising incorrect answers;
- other.

If we were to construct the test so that these alternate explanations for Sam's behaviour were eliminated then we could state with some assurance that Sam is cognisant of a symbol/picture/object relationship.

Yes, but we haven't got the time to do all of that!

Actually, it saves time because to assume an understanding when no such understanding really exists is extremely frustrating for both staff and Learner and leads to an eventual breakdown in progress and much loss of time. Furthermore, 'all of that' does not actually take much time: it's more about the design of the test than having to make lots of different approaches. If the test design:

- overcomes the 'pure chance' element;
- eliminates the possibility of staff cueing;
- does not always use preferred positioning;
- prevents staff rationalisations.

then, if Sam responds and is correct, we are able to say 'Sam is cognisant of a symbol/picture/object relationship'.

See Also:

Bradley, R.H. (1985). Social-Cognitive Development and Toys, Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, Volume 5: pp 11 - 29

Childress, D.C. (2011). Play Behaviors of Parents and Their Young Children With Disabilities, Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, Volume 31, pp. 112 - 120

Clavio, J.C.V., & Fajardo, A.C. (2008) Toys as instructional tools in developing problem-solving skills in children, Education Quarterly, Volume 66 (1), pp. 87-100.

Garwood, S.G. (1982). Piaget and play: Translating theory into practice, Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, Volume 2, pp. 1 - 13

Johnson, T. (1995). The Macintosh and augmentative communication from cause and effect to the dynamic screen using Speaking Dynamically, Presentation at ‘Closing the Gap’ Conference, Minneapolis, Minnesota, October 19th - 21st, 1995

Lacey, P. (2011) A profound challenge, SEN Magazine

13. Census

Using simple AAC it is possible for an individual to take a census, an opinion poll from school mates or staff members or family and friends or people on the street. Where the Learner would not be able to record the data collected another class member could be tasked with that responsibility; the pair working together as a team. Alternatively, the Learner could be provided with a form that s/he asks the questioned person to fill in with a tick against his/her preference on the Learner's behalf. Whichever way the data is collected, the Learner is conducting a survey using simple AAC.

The survey could be very simple; a preference for this or for that, or it could be more complex with several choices of preference. The more choices provided the greater the number of cells needed. A simple survey might only require four cells: 'Do you prefer', Choice A, 'or', Choice B. A six location overlay could add more choices or more information about the census: 'I am conducting a survey for my school', 'Would you mind answering a simple question for me?'

If the Learner is to be sent out into a noisy environment, many simple AAC systems will struggle to be heard above the noise. It is therefore advisable to add some small, portable, external amplified speaker to the arrangement. The are such speakers available for the iPad which also have the benefit of being wireless (Google 'wireless speaker for iPad').

One of the 'Do you prefer' four location grids from Unlimiter's SimpleAAC app for the iPad which comes with hundreds of such ready-made (but customisable such that it is possible to change the items that offer the preference) grids at 10 different location sizes. The Learner can conduct a survey of his/her school mates on any topic (Pepsi Cola or Coca Cola for example and even do a taste test!) and then take the results to produce an analysis back in class.

14. Charitable Programming for AAC

There are televised charity specials every year and local charity events and so it would be surprising if any Learner had not been involved in some fashion at some point. Simple AAC can be used in a number of ways in connection with charities and fund raising, it can:

- be used so that the Learner can talk about a particular event to others;
- enable Learners to take a collection box out onto the street to collect;
- help Learners to run a stall at a local charity event;
- inform others about a local charity event;
- itself be used as a fund raising 'task'

You may ask how simple AAC be used 'itself' as a method of raising money. Well there are a number of ideas but people are asked to select any four symbols in any order (let's assume the symbols are numbers to make it easier to understand) from an eight overlay. The numbers on the overlay are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 which means any four can create a number from 0000 to 7777. Now suppose in secret to decide that number 5247 will win £250 and varying other numbers somewhat less (or rather than cash different numbers could be associated with varying prizes). Any person can pick four numbers on the AAC system and their number is recorded. At some later point the numbers are checked against the list and anyone who has picked a number which has a prize wins the prize. At £1 per 'pick' and a lot of punters, you can raise a significant amount for your charity! It doesn't have to be numbers, it could be a colour sequence or animals, or ...

The idea for this section of this web page is to get the Learner involved in the charitable event using their simple AAC system as much as possible. Remember, charitable events are likely to be noisy affairs and most simple AAC systems will not compete so plug in an external amplified speaker to ensure that the earner can be heard above the crowd. Who is going to say 'NO' to a Learner using an AAC system requesting £1 for a go on his/her stall? Only the mean-at-heart and they presumably have stayed at home anyway!

15. Choosing Choice

Decisions Decisions. Where shall we go to eat? What shall we do next? What do you want to wear? What colour? What do you want to watch on TV? What would would like for tea? What would you like for breakfast? ... All levels of simple AAC can easily be used for providing choice. If the Learner has severe cognitive difficulties then the options can be placed in view such that the learner can select an appropriate symbol to make the choice. Initially, the positions of the symbols can match the positions of the choices but later, when it is felt that the Learner has grasped the concept. the positions can differ. If the Learner truly has grasped the concept this should pose no problem. Of course, if you arrange choice options in front of a learner and ask him to indicate a choice then there is a reasonable change that s/he will NOT use the simple AAC system but rather opt for the simpler option of pointing! If a Learner points then s/he has communicated and that should be respected; the staff should NOT say 'No John, on your talker'! However, next time the choice is given, it should be without arranging the options such that the pointing route is eliminated from the equation; if there is nothing at which to point then the simple AAC system because the easiest route to indicate your desire.

One of the 'choice' six location grids (this one on the flavour of crisps (translation for our American cousins: flavor of chips) from Unlimiter's SimpleAAC app for the iPad which comes with hundreds of such ready-made (but customisable such that it is possible to change the items in the choice range and also easily change 'crisps' to 'chips') grids at 10 different location sizes. Below a scanning eight location system offering a choice of yoghurt flavours. Not that he, here it has been set up so that the Learner may build a simple sentence: 'I want' 'yoghurt flavour' 'please'.

Can you make a choice with an SSS system? the answer is yes! An SSS can be programmed with a simple 'picking preference phrase' which could be just a single word ("Yes") or something a little longer "That's the one I want". Then, any time there is a choice, the Learner can use his/her SSS to pick a preference:

          -     Staff member sets out a choice of items in front of the learner
                Alternatively a set of photographs of items can be used instead
          -     Staff member highlights each of the items in turn
                This could be by pointing, framing, or highlighting with a torch or laser pen
                Framing requires a piece of coloured cardboard that has a square hole
                cut from its centre such that it can be placed around each object
                in turn to 'frame' it
          -     Learner indicates when the preferred item is reached by saying "yes"
                on the SSS

Working in this manner is teaching the Learner scanning skills which may prove useful for the Learner if s/he ever progresses far enough to begin using a scanning system. Scanning does not always require high-tech equipment, it can be taught with a choice of objects and a torch or a piece of coloured paper!

See also:

Bloom, Y. & Bhargava, D. (2007). Teaching choice making skills. Beecroft: Innovative Communication Programming.

Dattilo J., & Rusch, F. (1985), Effects of choice on leisure participation for persons with severe handicaps. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume10, pp. 194 - 199

Dyer, K., Dunlap, G., & Winterling, V. (1990), Effects of choice making on the serious problem behaviours of students with severe handicaps, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 23, pp. 515 - 524

Guess, D., Benson, H. and Siegel-Causey, E. (1985) 'Concepts and issues related to choice making and autonomy among persons with severe disabilities'. Journal of Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 10(2): pp. 79-86.

Houghton, J., Bronicki, G., & Guess, D. (1987), Opportunities to express preferences and make choices among students with severe disabilities in classroom settings, The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 12, pp.18 - 27

Lasker, J., Hux, K., Garrett, K., Eischeid, T., & Moncrief, E. (1996), Written choice communication for people with aphasia, Presentation at 7th Biennial ISAAC Conference Communication ...... naturally, August 1996, Vancouver, Canada

Lasker, J., Hux, K., Garrett, K., Moncrief, E., & Eischeid, T. (1997), Variations on the written choice communication strategy for individuals with severe aphasia, AAC, Volume 13 (2), June 1997, pp. 108 - 116

Levy, M. (1997), The Rainbow Programs - choices, independence, and freedom. Communicating Together, Volume 1 (1), March 1997, pp. 12 - 13

Parsons, M. & Reid, D. (1990), Assessing food preferences among persons with profound mental retardation: Providing opportunities to make choices, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 23, pp. 183 - 195

Reid, D. & Parsons. M. (1991), Making choice a routine part of mealtimes for persons with profound mental retardation, Behavioral and Residential Treatment, Volume 6, pp. 249 - 261

Shevin, M. & Klein, N. (1984), The importance of choice-making for students with severe disabilities, Journal of the Association for Person with Severe Handicaps, Volume 9, pp. 159 - 166

Sigafoos, J., Laurie, S., & Pennell, D. (1995), Preliminary assessment of choice making among children with Rett syndrome, Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 20, pp. 175 - 184

Sigafoos, J., Laurie, S., & Pennell, D. (1996), Teaching children with Rett Syndrome to request preferred objects using aided communication: Two preliminary studies, AAC, Volume 12 (2), June 1996, pp. 88 - 96

Stephenson, J. & Linfoot, K. (1995), Choice-making as a natural context for teaching early communication board use to a ten year old
boy with no spoken language and severe intellectual disability, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, Volume 20, pp. 263 - 286

Suphi, A. (1993), Creating opportunities for choice for adults with learning disabilities in a group home, Presentation at the - Communication Matters National Symposium, Portland College, Mansfield. 25th - 26th October 1993

Suphi, A. (1994), Creating opportunities for choice for adults with learning disabilities in a group home, Communication Matters, Volume 8 (2), August 1994, pp. 11 - 14

Todaro, M.P. (1995), "Weekend of choices” AAC summer camp, 9th Annual Minspeak Conference Proceedings, July 14-15th, 1995, Wooster, Ohio. pp. 97 - 99, Wooster, OH: PRC

Vaughn, B. & Horner, R. (1995), Effects of concrete versus verbal choice systems on problem behavior, AAC, Volume 11, June 1995, Number 2, pp. 89 - 92

Wall, M.E., & Dattilo, J. (1995), Creating Option-Rich Learning Environments: Facilitating Self-Determination, Journal of Special Education, Volume 29 (3), pp. 276-294

16. Clozing The Gap

Here is a fun way to use a simple AAC system. It's both fun and educational. You provide an overlay containing a set of words (overlay must therefore be 2 or greater in size). The words can be all nouns, or verbs, or adjectives, etc, or a mixture of different parts of speech. Once you have the overlay complete with symbols and words, you provide cloze sentences for the Learner to complete. What's a cloze sentence? It is a sentence with a _ _ _ _ or _ _ _ _ _ missing! ('word' or 'words' as if you haven't guessed!). The object is for the Learner to fill in the missing word from the choices available to him or her from the simple AAC system. You can make it as simple or as difficult as you like according to the needs of the individual Learner and you can, of course, step it up when the Learner becomes proficient with one set of words.

In 1953, Wilson L. Taylor introduced the “cloze procedure” as a method of
measuring the “readability,” or difficulty, of a text, and later (1956) as a measure of
reading comprehension for native speakers. The method was simple—systematically or
randomly delete words from a particular passage and ask the student to restore the missing words—and so, it quickly gained in popularity and its momentum has not stopped.

Consider an eight overlay containing eight household items (depicted below). Choose one of the items to complete the following sentences:

- I turned on the ___ and filled the kettle. (Americans might use a different word to the Brits);
- I changed the TV channel using the _____ ______.
- Please sit on the _____ and make yourself comfortable.
- I am tired and I am going to ____.
- I cannot find any _______ to cut this paper.
- Do you know where I put my ______. I can't see a thing!
- I need a ______ quick because I am going to sneeze.
- Turn on the ______ because it's getting a little dark in here.

Now of course, you can create special 'cloze pages' for any Learner's simple AAC system but isn't that creating extra work for yourself? Why not simply use existing pages in this way! It will help to teach the vocabulary on the page.

See Also:

Alderson, J.C. (1978). A study of the cloze procedure with native and non-native speakers of English. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Edinburgh.

Alderson, J.C. (1983). The cloze procedure and proficiency in English as a foreign language. In J.W. Oller (Ed.), Issues in language testing research (pp. 205-217). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. (Reprinted from TESOL Quarterly, 13(2), 219-227, 1979)

Bachman, L.F. (1982). The trait structure of cloze test scores. TESOL Quarterly, Volume 16 (1), pp. 61 - 70.

Bachman, L.F. (1985). Performance on cloze tests with fixed-ratio and rational deletions. TESOL Quarterly, Volume 19 (3), pp. 535 - 555.

Bormuth, J.R. (1967). Comparable cloze and multiple-choice comprehension test scores. Journal of Reading, Volume 10, pp. 291 - 299.

Bormuth, J.R. (1968). Cloze test readability: Criterion reference scores. Journal of Educational Measurement, Volume 5, pp. 189-196.

Bormuth, J.R. (1969). Factor validity of cloze tests as measures of reading comprehension ability. Reading Research Quarterly, Volume 4, pp. 358 - 368.

Brown, J.D. (1980). Relative merits of four methods for scoring cloze tests. The Modern Language Journal, Volume 64 (3), pp. 311 - 317.

Brown, J.D. (1983a). A closer look at cloze: Validity and reliability. In J. W. Oller (Ed.), Issues in language testing research (pp. 237-250). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Brown, J.D. (1983b). A cloze is a cloze is a cloze? (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED275145)

Brown, J.D. (2002). Do cloze tests work? Or, is it just an illusion? Second Language Studies, Volume 21 (1), pp. 79 - 125.

Carroll, J. B., Carton, A. S., & Wilds, C. P. (1959). An investigation of cloze items in the measurement of achievement in a foreign language. Cambridge, MA: Laboratory for Research in Instruction, Harvard School of Education.

Chihara, T., Oller, J., Weaver, K., & Chavez-Oller, M. A. (1977). Are cloze items sensitive to constraints across sentences? Language Learning, Volume 27 (1), pp. 63 - 73.

Gamaroff, R. (1998). The cloze test as a measure of language proficiency: A statistical analysis. South African Journal of Linguistics, Volume 16 (1), pp. 7 - 15.

Green, D.R., & Tomlinson, M. (1983). The cloze procedure applied to a probability concepts test. Journal of Research in Reading, Volume 6 (2), pp. 103 - 118.

Hinofotis, F.B. (1980a). Cloze as an alternative method of ESL placement and proficiency testing. In J.W. Oller, Jr. & K. Perkins (Eds.), Research in Language Testing (pp. 121-128). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Jonz, J. (1990). Another turn in the conversation: What does cloze measure? TESOL Quarterly, Volume 24, pp. 61 - 83.

Kohler, E. (1966). An investigation of cloze scores in terms of selected cognitive variables. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Florida State University: Tallahassee.

Levenston, E.A., Nir, R., & Blum-Kulka, S. (1984). Discourse analysis and the testing of reading comprehension by cloze techniques. In A. K. Pugh & J.M. Ulign (Eds.), Reading for professional purposes (pp. 202-212). London: Heinemann.

McKamey, T. (2006). Getting closure on Cloze: A validation study of the "rational Deletion" method. Second Language Studies, Volume 24 (2), pp. 114-164.

McKenna, M.C., & Layton, K. (1990). Concurrent validity of cloze as a measure of inter-sentential comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 82 (2), pp. 372 - 377

Oller, J.W., Jr., Bowen, J.D., Diem, T.T., & Mason, V. (1972). Cloze tests in English, Thai, and Vietnamese: Native and non-native performance. Language Learning, Volume 2 (1), pp. 1 - 15.

Oller, J.W., Jr. (1972). Scoring methods and difficulty levels for cloze tests of proficiency in English as a second language. The Modern Language Journal, Volume 56 (3), pp. 151 - 158.

Oller, J.W., Jr. (1975). Cloze, discourse, and approximations to English. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED107144)

Oller, J.W., & Conrad, C.A. (1971). The cloze technique and ESL proficiency. Language Learning, Volume 21 (2), pp. 185 - 195.

Ohnmacht, F.W., Weaver, W.W., & Kohler, E.T. (1970). Cloze and closure: A factorial study. Journal of Psychology, Volume 74, pp. 205 - 217.

Rankin, E.F., & Culhane, J.W. (1969). Comparable cloze and multiple-choice comprehension test scores. Journal of Reading, Volume 13, pp. 193 - 198.

Sasaki, M. (2000). Effects of cultural schemata on students’ test-taking processes for cloze tests: a multiple data source approach. Language Testing, Volume 17 (1), pp. 85–114.

Shanahan, T., & Kamil, M. (1982). The sensitivity of cloze to passage organization. In J. Niles & L. Harris (Eds.), New inquiries in reading research and instruction: Thirty-first yearbook of the National Reading Conference (pp. 204-208). Rochester, NY: National Reading Conference.

Shanahan, T., Kamil, M., & Tobin, A. (1982). Cloze as a measure of intersentential comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, Volume 17, pp. 229 - 255.

Taylor, W.L. (1953). Cloze procedure: A new tool for measuring readability. Journalism Quarterly, Volume 30, pp. 414 - 433.

Taylor, W.L. (1956). Recent developments in the use of “Cloze Procedure.” Journalism Quarterly, Volume 33 (1), pp. 42-48..

Todd, S. (1995). Coming out of the closet: Product and process in a cloze design.Unpublished paper. University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa.

Yamashita, J. (2003). Processes of taking a gap-filling test: Comparison of skilled and less skilled EFL readers. Language Testing, Volume 20 (3), pp. 267 - 293.

Weaver, W., & Kingston, A. (1963). A factor analysis of the cloze procedure and other measures of reading and language ability. Journal of Communication, Volume 13, pp. 252 - 261.

17. Cognitive Engagement and Active Environments

There is a page on this site devoted to Creating Active eNvironments (CAN). Click on the symbol left to be transported there.

Many classrooms don’t really engage the Learners cognitively. Some Learners are present but not included:

We program an SSS to say good morning and then cycle the class to let every Learner take a swipe at it. They learn that if the SSS is placed in front of you …’hit it’, but little else. (see section on fly-swatting this page)

We provide ‘choices’ and we believe that is inclusion. No one ever stops to think that the choices are errorless: the Learner can choose anything and can ‘coast’ through the day without really being engaged cognitively. (See section of assuming understanding on this page)

We make assumptions of understanding based on very scant evidence: ‘he smiles’, ‘she seems to respond appropriately’, ‘his body language says that he is aware’, ‘her intelligence is trapped inside’ … the list goes on. While, in some cases, these are indicators of understanding, they should not be taken as such. The reverse is also true, if a Learner does not respond, it does not follow that s/he has not understood.

Cognitive Engagement is the antidote to the fly-swatting syndrome and to passivity of which fly-swatting is a feature. Planing for cognitive engagement ensures that staff are promoting real learning and not just assumptions of learning, The movement towards evidence-based practice (EBP) that first appeared in the 1970s (but didn't really make any significant impact until the 1990's has spread from the field of Health and Medicine to education. We are encouraged to believe that practice should be based on 'evidence' which comes from sound research. While not wanting to enter the debate over such practice here, it seems to Talksense that there needs to a greater degree of evidence of understanding in the special needs classroom and not simply assumptions of such. Research need not always be external, proof of understanding can be evidenced quite simply, in real time situations, to the benefit all of all involved.

            ‘It is not possible to establish that a Learner hasn't grasped a concept but it is possible to prove that they have.’

In other words: if John just sits there and does nothing, it does not mean he hasn't taken in the intended learning. If John fails all the tests, it still would be incorrect to say ‘John cannot’ or ‘John does not know that ...’ – all one really knows is that John failed the tests. However, if John performs in some way or passes post-learning tests then we can say for certain that he has grasped the concept, has learnt the lesson, has understood. The problem is that too many staff accept almost anything as ‘evidence of understanding’.

We need to engage learners cognitively. There are various techniques for doing this, the better ones have in-built indicators of success and are in themselves self-contained EBP.

Listen and Learn. The Learner is tasked to listen to what is being said and perform some task when a particular 'thing' occurs. For example: John is asked to activate his SSS every time the word ‘elephant’ is said. The SSS simply repeats the word ‘elephant’ excitedly. John is rewarded for every correct ‘interruption’. The SSS is labelled with the symbol for elephant. John’s performance is, itself, an indicator of success.

Watch and Say. The Learner is tasked to watch a particular piece or performance by another and say when a particular point is reached. For example: Julia is asked to indicate when the ball is reached in a on line scan of four items where one other item is also spherical (for example, an orange) and one other item is the same colour as the ball and yet another item is completely different but placed in what is thought to be the Learner’s preferred position (she always chooses the one on the left). If Julia indicates the correct item then that, in itself , is an indicator of cognitive engagement. Of course, it could have been accidental (a fluke) but repeated success strongly suggest cognitive engagement. A variation on this approach is to place another identical ball in a box so that Julia can see it at all times BUT the facilitating staff member cannot. It is preferable that the staff member does NOT know what is in the box (the ball was chosen and placed in the box by another member of staff in secret) and that the facilitator only is deciding which choice Julia is making as s/he points to each of the four items in turn.  A correct response could merely be a chance occurrence but what if there are two correct responses or three … This is a fun game that’s easy to set up and requires little if any technology and yet speaks volumes about a Learner’s understanding if successful. If Julia does not succeed, it is NOT possible to state that she does not understand: all we can say is that she did not succeed.

Cognitive Engagement (CE) may be defined as,

              'The intentional and purposeful mental processing of session content.'

Cognitive Engagement refers to the thinking skills that a Learner needs to bring into play in order to understand the activity in question and participate successfully.

CE therefore requires strategies that promote:

-     inclusion rather than exclusion;
-     communication rather than silence;
-     manipulation rather than (rote) memorization;
-     involvement rather than non-participation;
-     exploration rather than immobility;
-     challenge rather than automaticity;
-     clarity rather than confusion (learning is 'scaffolded');
-     structure rather than disorder;
-     confidence rather than insecurity;
-     arousal rather than boredom;
-     safety rather than fear;

as the means through which Learners acquire both knowledge and deeper conceptual insight.

CE can be elevated through a variety of activities such as:

-     introducing and exploring the new;
-     the inclusion of 'incorrect' responses;
-     inducing cognitive dissonance;
-     posing 'argumentative' questions requiring the development of a supportable position,
-     asking Learners to generate a prediction or rationale during a session.

For further information
go here and here

See also

Brewser, C., & J. Fager. (200). Increasing Student Engagement and Motivation: From Time-on-Task (Portland, Oregon: Northwest Regional Laboratory, October).

Corno, L, & Mandinach., E.B., (1983), The Role of Cognitive Engagement in Classroom Learning and Motivation, Educational Psychologist, Volume 18 (2), pp.88—108

Licht, B.G. (1983). Cognitive-motivational factors that contribute to the achievement of learning-disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, Volume 16, pp. 483 - 490.

Torgesen, J.K. (1982). The learning disabled child as an inactive learner. Topics in Learning & Learning Disabilities, Volume 2, pp. 45-52.

Voke, H. (2002). Student Engagement: Motivating Students to Learn, Infobrief No. 28 (Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, February, 2002).

It is not practical (and probably not desirable) to have CE every second of every day: there are times when we all need to switch off and 'chill out'. Therefore, there will be planned periods of inactivity ...

18. Colour Me AAC

Back in 1926, Edith Fitzgerald wrote a book entitled 'Straight Language For Deaf' which, as its name implies, is a manual on a method for teaching language and grammar to those people who have little or no hearing. Although Edith divides sentences up into parts of speech, and has a key system for doing this, at no point in the book does she talk about a colour encoding system (Fitzgerald's original key was based on a set of six symbols with each standing for a particular part of speech). However, such a colour encoding system has been attributed to her and it has become known as the Fitzgerald Color (colour) coding system. It is a means to classify different parts of speech and to make them easily distinguishable from one another. Though there appears to be no one set colour standard for every part of speech in the system, some colours are consistently used:

     adjectives         blue
     pronouns          yellow
     nouns               orange
     verbs                green

beyond that there appears to be a variety of colours used in what generally is referred to as a 'modified Fitzgerald key':

     adverbials       brown
     conjunctions    white
     determiners     grey
     expletives        red
     interrogatives purple
    negations       red
     prepositions   pink

It should be stressed that you will find all manner of variations on the 'Fitzgerald key' in use although it is recommended that you
consistently maintain at least one 'standard'. There are also other colour schemes for AAC in existence: for example the Goossens, Crain and Elder system in which verbs are pink, nouns are yellow, prepositions are green, and adjectives and adverbs are blue. Of course, if you do not like either of the above systems, you can devise your own. As long as it is applied consistently with a particular Learner there should be no problem. However, if the Learner at some point transfers to another educational establishment and they have a cross curricular colour scheme for AAC which is different then there might be an issue.

There may be classes within classes: for example, there are modal and auxiliary verbs as well as lexical verbs. All will be colour coded green (under Fitzgerald) but a variation in the tone of green used can be made to great effect. Also where nouns are grouped according to categories, each category could have an alternating shade of orange such that neighbouring categories are distinguishable.

See:

Alant, E., Kolatsis, A., & Lilienfeld, M.. (2010), The effect of sequential exposure of color conditions on time and accuracy of graphic symbol location. AAC. Volume 26(1):pp. 41 - 47.

Bolderson, S., Dosanjh, C., Milligan, C., Pring, T. & Chiat, S. (2011). Colourful semantics: A clinical investigation. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, Volume 27, pp. 344 - 353

Bryan, A. (1997) Colourful Semantics. In S, Chait., J, Law., & J, Marshall. (Eds), Language disorders in children and adults: Psycholinguistic approaches to therapy. London Whurr

Bryan, A., Bolderson, S., Coelho, C. & Dosanjih, C. (2007). Colourful Semantics: Application in school settings. Afasic 4th International Symposium: Unlocking speech and language. University of Warwick, UK

Dwyer, F.M., & Lamberski, R.J. (1983). A Review of the Research on the Effects of the Use of Color in the Teaching-learning Process. International Journal of Instructional Media, Volume 10 (4), pp. 303 - 307

Ebbels S. (2007), Teaching grammar to school-aged children with specific language impairment using Shape Coding, Child Language Teaching and Therapy, Volume 23 (1); pp. 67–93

Farran, E.K., Courbois, Y., Van Herwegen, J., Cruickshank, A.G., & Blades, M. (2012), Colour as an environmental cue when learning a route in a virtual environment: Typical and atypical development, Research in Developmental Disabilities, Volume 33, Issue 3, May–June 2012, pp. 900 – 908

Fitzgerald, E. (1926)(republished June 1949), Straight Language for the Deaf, Alex Graham Bell Assn for Deaf

Goossens, C., Crain, S., & Elder, P. (1992). Engineering the Classroom Environment for Interactive Symbolic Communication. Southeast Aug Comm Conference Publications, 2430 11th Avenue, N, Birmingham, AL 35234

Kovattana, P.M. & Kraemer, H.C. (1974), Response to multiple visual cues of color, size, and form by autistic children, Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, Volume 4, Issue 3, pp 251 - 261

Laws, G. (2002), Working memory in children and adolescents with Down syndrome: evidence from a colour memory experiment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Volume 43 (3), pp. 353 - 364

Lea, J. (1970) The colour pattern scheme: a method of remedial language teaching. Hurst Green, Surrey, UK: Moor House School.

Pett, D., & Wilson, T. (1996), Color research and its application to the design of instructional materials, Educational Technology Research and Development, Volume 44, Issue 3, pp. 19 - 35

Stephenson, J. (2007), The effect of color on the recognition and use of line drawings by children with severe intellectual disabilities. AAC. Volume 23(1): pp. 44 - 55.

Thistle, J.J, & Wilkinson, K. (2009), The effects of color cues on typically developing preschoolers' speed of locating a target line drawing: implications for augmentative and alternative communication display design. American Journal of Speech & Language Pathology, Volume 18(3):pp. 231 - 240.

Wilkinson,K.M.,& Jagaroo,V.(2004) Contributions of principles of visual cognitive science to AAC system display design.Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 20: pp.123 – 136

Wilkinson,K.M.,Carlin,M.,& Jagaroo,V.(2006). Preschoolers' speed of locating a target symbol under different color conditions, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 22 pp.123 – 133

Wilkinson, K. M., Carlin, M., & Thistle, J. (2008). The role of color cues in facilitating accurate and rapid location of aided symbols by children with and without Down Syndrome. American Journal of Speech-Language-Pathology, Volume 17, pp. 179 - 193

Wilkinson, K.M., & Coombs, B. (2010). Preliminary exploration of the effect of background color on the speed and accuracy of search for an aided symbol target by typically developing preschoolers. Early Childhood Services; Special Issue on Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 4, pp. 33 - 47.

Wilkinson, K.M, & Snell, J. (2011), Facilitating children's ability to distinguish symbols for emotions: the effects of background color cues and spatial arrangement of symbols on accuracy and speed of search. American Journal of Speech & Language Pathology. Volume;20(4): pp. 288 - 301.

19. Control Yourself

"The provision of positive control experiences early in life will be a primary factor in helplessness immunization. Vocabulary selection for and design features of AAC systems can significantly change the level of personal power and control available to the augmented communicator."
(Sweeney, L. 1993)

"The ability to communicate, that is, to interact socially and to make needs and wants known, is central to the determination of an individual’s quality of life. The power of communication is especially important for the severely handicapped ... these individuals face a lifetime of substantial, if not total dependence on others; hence, their ability to communicate and establish some control over their environment must be recognized as a priority in their programming."
(Light, J., McNaughton, D., & Parnes, P. 1986)

"The final element that we need when working on communication .... is time. Many opportunities for the child to take control are sadly missed if they are not given the chance to operate at their own level and in their own time scale. For some children it may literally take minutes for them to process what has been asked of them and to create a response." (Knight, C. 1992 page 26)

"Learned helplessness occurs when it is unclear to the learner that he or she is unable to exert control over the environment. Guess, Benson, & Siegel-Causey (1985) suggest that learners who exhibit helplessness see no relationship between their actions and environmental outcomes." (Reichle, J. 1991 page 141)

From childhood and throughout life, feelings of self-sufficiency, self-respect and worth are closely related to the ability to express oneself. The perception of oneself as independent and equal to others is related to the ability to tell of one’s needs, concerns, and feelings. People who are unable to do this lose control over their own fate. Their experience is that other people underestimate them - talk down to them, humour them, and make decisions for them - thus reinforcing their feeling of being second class citizens. For the most severely disabled, such negative experiences may - together with inconsistent and infrequent reactions to their wants - lead to learned passivity and extensive dependency on others. For them, the ability to communicate means an increased understanding of the world, the possibility of expressing their needs, and a higher level of activity. Providing an alternative mode of communication for speechless children and adults increases their quality of life. (Von Tetzchner, S. & Martinsen, H. 1992)

No matter what level of AAC is being used, it is really important to include some aspects of control. That is:

- Control of the Environment (Taking control of the objects in your surroundings);
- Control of Others (Getting Significant Others to do as you say);
- Control of Events (Influencing the order of things and how they happen to you);
- Control of Yourself (Letting others know when you are feeling frustrated or unhappy);
- Control over the language you can use (Having a say in what language is stored on your system).

This goes beyond the recognition of cause and effect and therefore necessarily assumes that the Learner has mastered or is in the process of mastering that particular milestone. Passivity can be a major problem is the education of those deemed to be 'special'. It is important that we do not do things for Learners but, rather, seek to enable Learners to do things for themselves. Thus, we should provide lots of opportunities to give control to the Learner during an average day. The first thing to note is that we should ensure we are empowering Learners to do things for themselves and not doing it for them:

"Learned helplessness occurs when it is unclear to the learner that he or she is able to exert control over the environment.....For many learners, their social history has offered few opportunities to self-select desired objects, people, or activities. At meal times plates are prepared and distributed. Additional serving are provided automatically. Coats are handed out and doors opened when it is time to go. Thus, throughout the day, the caregivers do virtually everything for the learners. Initially, some learners may have attempted to self-select items of interest, but were actively encouraged not to do so." (Reichle, J. 1991 p.141)

Passivity (Learned helplessness) is not innate, it is nurtured. We make people passive by the way we behave and the things that we do. We may be doing these things with the very best of intentions but, nevertheless, we must stop and consider if, instead of 'doing something on behalf of', could we change things so that the individual might (learn to) control it for themselves.

Of course, if (when?) it is decided to pass control to a Learner, it should be well planned and thought through because there can be some consequences that Significant Others may find challenging otherwise. For example, if you say to little Gemma, "Gemma, you can decide what we are having for tea today" and Gemma then chooses something that you find strange "egg and jam on toast". You should not say, 'Yuck! We cannot have that' and go ahead and make the decision yourself but, rather, make 'egg and jam on toast' for tea! It's not every day that you will have to have egg and jam, just today! You will pretend to love it! Of course, on a simple AAC overlay, there is limited access to a variety of vocabulary and it is less likely that there will be such requests. Parents may make one meal a week the responsibility of the Learner. The Learner will not just choose the meal but also go out and buy the ingredients as well as help with the preparation according to their abilities. Even if an individual will never coo, it does not follow that they cannot have an input into the cooking by controlling what the Significant Other is doing. Cooking involves a lot of use of core vocabulary: 'put', 'that', 'in' , there', 'turn', 'it', 'over','make', 'this','turn', 'it', 'on', 'get', 'some', 'take', 'them', 'off' ... which is really useful language for any part of the day. It can be a special time to which the Learner can really look forward and can help develop special bonds between a Learner and a Significant Other. If it is a regular activity, the Learner may him/herself decide that certain vocabulary is missing from their system and point to such an item and then to their talker when the item is encountered to indicate a desire for it to be added. Whenever this occurs for the first time it is a really momentous moment and should always be recorded (see section on videoing on this page). As a task, try to think of one way each week that you can hand over control of one (even very small) aspect of life to the Learner and what sought of language the Learner will need to take control.

A Learner could be given the responsibility to feed the school pet each day. The Learner is told that this is his/her duty and she must take it very seriously as it's a very responsible position. The Learner has to collect the food each day from a particular person in a particular place. S/he then must take it to the pet and ensure that the pet is fed.

What if s/he forgets or just doesn't do it . Do we just let the poor animal go hungry?

Of course not! Each plan has it's own safety measures and checks. Let us suppose that Lucy is tasked with feeding the school rabbit each day and she has to get the food from the caretaker in the caretaker's store room. One day Lucy does not turn up to ask the caretaker for the food at the appointed time and an hour goes by. The caretaker notifies the Significant Other in charge of the scheme. This person does not feed the rabbit but rather locates Lucy and reprimands her for not taking her duty seriously! Lucy is sent off to collect the food and feed the rabbit.

What if the Learner does not have the physical ability to perform the allocated task?

That does not matter! This Learner can instruct others to help him/her to undertake the task. The Learner has the responsibility for ensuring that it happens but is not required to do it her/himself.

What if the caretaker is not there?

Actually, I would even plan that the caretaker not be there one day to throw a spanner into the works and see what happens! Does the Learner go and find a suitable Significant Other and tell them what has happened or does s/he simply give up and go back to lessons? The whole idea is to give the Learner a responsibility of his or her own and for her to overcome any issues that arise using whatever means possible including the best possible use of his/her communication system.

See also:

Farrier, L., Yorkston, K., Marriner, N., & Beukelman, D. (1985). Conversational control in non-impaired speakers using augmentative communication systems, AAC, Volume 1, pp. 65 - 73

King, A. (1996). Enabling kids and families to take control, Communicating Together, Volume 13 (1), March 1996, pp. 17 - 21

Knight, C. (1992). Speech therapy on the run: Creating opportunities for effective communication, Eye Contact, Issue Number 3, Summer 1992, Royal National Institute for the Blind

Light, J., McNaughton, D., & Parnes, P. (1986). A protocol for the assessment of the communicative interaction skills of nonspeaking severely handicapped adults and their facilitators. Toronto: Hugh Macmillan Medical Centre

Peck, C. (1985), Increasing opportunities for social control by children with autism and severe handicaps: Effects on student behavior and perceived classroom climate, Journal of the association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 10, pp. 183 - 193

Reichle, J. (1991). Developing communicative exchanges, In - Implementing Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Strategies for Learners with Severe Disabilities, Reichle, J., York, J., & Sigafoos, J. (Eds.), pp. 133 - 156, Paul H. Brookes Publishing

Rowe, M. (1974), Wait-time and rewards as instructional variables, their influence on language, logic, and fate control, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Volume 11, pp. 81 - 94

Sweeney, L.A. (1989), Reducing learned dependency in potential and early augmentative communication users, Southeast Augmentative
Communication Conference Proceedings, 1989

Sweeney, L.A. (1991), Learned dependency and co-dependency among potential users of augmentative communication, American Speech Language Hearing Association Miniseminar, Atlanta, Georgia

Sweeney, L.A. (1993). Helplessness, Dependency, an explanatory style as variables of employment potential among Augmented Communicators, First Annual Pittsburgh Employment Conference for Augmented Communicators Proceedings, August 20-22: Shout Press: Pittsburgh

Verburg, G. (1997), We don’t need no mind control, Communicating Together, Volume 14 (1), March 1997, pp. 20 - 22

Von Tetzchner, S. & Martinsen, H. (1992). Introduction to Sign Teaching and the Use of Communication Aids, Whurr Publishers

20. Conventional Wisdom

There are so many everyday conventions that we now take them for granted and perhaps do not realise that they are simply arbitrary conventions that we learn as a young child: for example, in the UK we learn very early to look left first when crossing the road. However, in most of the rest of the world they look right. Good manners (what is considered good varies from country to country), appropriate dress code, neighbourly behaviour are all social conventions that we have to learn. Certain conventions, for instance the use of arrows to provide directionality in road signs can easily be displayed in symbol form on a simple AAC device. It is a good idea to provide the the school rules as an accessible overlay for a simple AAC system or at least in an accessible symbol format.

Where conventions apply in the local area the Learner can be sent to investigate: For example, to count the number of stop signs between school and a particular spot (see 'Count on it' section below). In this way the Learner has to discriminate a particular social symbol many times such that it should become affixed in his/her memory. The Simple AAC device could display the different road signs that the Learner will encounter such that s/he can label them all (but only count the particular sign s/he has been tasked to survey).

Safety is hugely important and, as such, the signs and symbols that are typically used are important for a Learner to recognise and understand. Again, as above, the Learner can be provided with a safety symbol overlay and be tasked to find out and mark (on a school plan?) where these signs can be located in the building.

21. Cooperation

It is typical to find that Learners experiencing severe cognitive difficulties (who use some AAC system) communicate (if at all) with staff and rarely with peers. However, in the average school the opposite is more likely to be the norm! This section focuses on idea to get Learners working together as a team, communicating with one another, supporting each other and building friendships.

If we can get Learners to spend some part of the day (or session) working in small diverse teams:

- advanced learners with those that are not so advanced;
- mixing able learners with those that are not so able;
- switch users with non-switch users;
- SSS systems with multi-cell systems with Learners who are able to speak;

on themes or topics in which every member can have a contributory role and each can play a part, such that:

- no team member is excluded - All have a function;
- without the contribution of any single member, the group cannot complete the task;
- specific Learners are encouraged to assist less able Learners if necessary;

then some form of communication and cooperation is assured.

These diverse groups/teams are required to learn a particular theme or topic or undertake a particular task which involves learning. The teams are informed that if one member of the team fails then the whole team fails, they are to help each other with the work, with learning and understanding. The team themselves are to help any Learner using switches to set up equipment and should be shown how to add any necessary vocabulary to a communication system.

What sorts of group tasks can be set?
There are many possibilities. Some are detailed on this web page. Groups can be sent to:

- perform a census (see section on census);
- undertake a regular duty (keeping a daily weather chart?);
- figure out the best way to perform a challenge (for example, throw an egg as far as possible without breaking it using only materials
they can find in the classroom);
- devise and perform a small play/story. All team members have to have a speaking role;
- organise a money raising activity at a school fair;
- go carol singing as a group;
- go into a fast food restaurant and purchase and eat a meal independently;
- take an assembly;
- take complete care of an animal for a period of time;
- teach the rest of the class about s given topic;
- organise, purchase, make, prepare a meal for invited staff members (and join them in discussion at the meal);
- organise and run a school sale to raise money for a specific requirement;

That cannot be achieved using simple AAC!
Can't it? Remember, not every member of the group has to be using such a system.

Jig-sawing

There are other varying approaches to cooperation; one is known as ‘jig-sawing’. In jig-sawing, each member of the team learns a different piece of the task and then comes and reports back to the group to teach his/her section to the others. The others can ask questions, for clarification, additional information, etc. until they are sure that they, too, have understood the section. The whole group has to report back to the teacher once the task has been completed. Several diverse groups could be working on the same task, eventually sharing knowledge and learning at the end of the session. Learners have to:

          -          work as a team and include all others;
          -          help others, especially those who have learning difficulties;
          -          learn about others needs and abilities and problems, empathise with others;
          -          make information comprehensible so that it may be understood by peers;
          -          share goals, act responsibly.

Peer Partnering

Peer partnering is a technique for answering questions that, used sensitively and wisely, can assist Learners to respond to tutor questions without holding up the rest of the class. Students are paired (diverse pairing) and each pair is given a question on the session that they have to discuss and on which they have to prepare an answer. The answer must be given by both members of the pairing equally and not just a single member (although they are allowed to help each other). Thus, the class is provided with a set of questions and is given time to prepare their responses. As it is known that both members of the pairing have to provide an equal amount of the ‘answer’, the more able partner cannot simply do all the work on his/her own but must work with their peer as a team. The Learner has time to prepare an answer and is not simply put on the spot while the others in the class are waiting for him/her to ‘build’ an answer.

Pairs are not fixed! They are different every time so that all individuals get to work with all others. Switch users, who by definition may need to scan to get access to vocabulary to answer a question, can work with non-switch users, to think about and develop an response. Time is not the crucial issue; the more 'able' partner may actually be the person using the switches! However individuals are paired, the Learner working with switches is fully included.

Peer Tutoring

Peer Tutoring is a method of learning that involves Learners both assisting and teaching other Learners. Individuals can come to understand and master a subject more comprehensively when they are required to teach it to another. The individual Learner being taught may feel more comfortable having someone close to their own age as a tutor and, if they are also using AAC, as a role model. There is also a sense of achievement and pride for the tutor and opportunities for communication, friendship and greater understanding and empathy especially for Learners from diverse situations.

See also:

Bell, K., Young, R., Blair, M., & Nelson, R. (1990). Facilitating mainstreaming of students with behavioral disorders using classwide peer tutoring. School Psychology Review, Volume 19, pp. 564-573.

Blumenfeld, P.C., Marx, R.W., Soloway E., and Krajcik, J.(1996), Learning with Peers: From Small Group Cooperation to Collaborative Communities, Educational Researcher, Volume 25 (8), pp. 37-40

Burns, E. (2006), Pause, prompt and praise – peer tutored reading for pupils with learning difficulties, British Journal of Special Education, Volume 33 (2), pp. 62 – 67

Cochran, L., Feng, H., Cartledge, G., & Hamilton, S. (1993). The effects of cross-age tutoring on the academic achievement, social behaviors, and self-perceptions of low-achieving African-American males with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, Volume 18, pp. 292-302.

Cohen, J. (1986), Theoretical considerations of peer tutoring, Psychology in the Schools, Volume 23 (2), pp. 175 – 186

Cowie, H. & Wallace, P. (2000). Peer Support in Action. London: Sage

Evans, M.J., & Moore, J.S. (2012), Peer tutoring with the aid of the Internet, British Journal of Educational Technology, on-line

Falk, K.B., & Wehby, J.H. (2001). The effects of peer-assisted learning strategies on the beginning reading skills of young children with emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, Volume 26, pp. 344-359.

Franca, V.M., Kerr, M.M., Reitz, A.L., & Lambert, D. (1990). Peer tutoring among behaviorally disordered students: Academic and social benefits to tutor and tutee. Education and Treatment of Children, Volume 13, pp. 109-128.

Fuchs, D. & Fuchs, L. (1997) Peer-assisted Learning Strategies: making classrooms more responsive to diversity. American Educational Research Journal, Volume 34, pp.174 - 206.

Garcí-Vázquez, E. & Ehly, S.W. (1992), Peer tutoring effects on students who are perceived as not socially accepted, Psychology in the Schools, Volume 29 (3), pp. 256 – 266

Hooper, H., & Walker, M. (2002), Makaton peer tutoring evaluation: 10 years on, British Journal of Learning Disabilities, Volume 30 (1), pp. 38 – 42

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., Johnson, E.H., & Roy, P. (1984), Circles of Learning Cooperation in the Classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

Jones, V. (2007), ‘I felt like I did something good’— the impact on mainstream pupils of a peer tutoring programme for children with autism, British Journal of Special Education, Volume 34 (1), pp. 3–9

Kent-Walsh, J., & McNaughton, D. (2005), Communication Partner Instruction in AAC: Present Practices and Future Directions, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 21 (3) , pp. 195-204

Lilienfeld, M. & Alant, E. (2005). The social interaction of an adolescent who uses AAC: The evaluation of a peer-training program,
Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 21 (4), pp. 278-294

Maher, C.A. (1982). Behavioral effects of using conduct problem adolescents as cross-age tutors. Psychology in the Schools, Volume 19, pp. 360-364.

Putnam, J.W. (Ed.)(1993), Cooperative Learning and Strategies for Inclusion: Celebrating Diversity in the Classroom. Children, Youth & Change: Sociocultural Perspectives, Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M., Veit, D.T., & Osguthorpe, R.T. (1986). Behaviorally disordered students as tutors: Effects on social behavior. Behavioral Disorders, Volume 12, pp. 36-43.

Shisler, L., Top, B.L., & Osguthorpe, R.T. (1986). Behaviorally disordered students as reverse-role tutors: Increasing social acceptance and reading skills. B.C. Journal of Special Education, Volume 10, pp. 101-119.

Slavin, R. (1987). "Cooperative Learning: Can Students Help Students Learn?" Instructor. March 1987: pp. 74-78.

Spencer, V.G., Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (2003). Content area learning in middle school social studies classrooms and students with emotional or behavioral disorders: A comparison of strategies. Behavioral Disorders, Volume 28, pp. 77-93.

Wehby, J.H., Falk, K.B., Barton-Atwood, S., Lane, K.L., & Cooley, C. (2003). The impact of comprehensive reading instruction on the academic and social behavior of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, Volume 11, pp. 225-238.

Willis, D. (2003). Why Listen to Me? A Peer Support and Parenting Project. London: National Children's Bureau.

22. Count on it

Numerous writers (for example, Robbins, 1991; Paterson et al, 2006; Porter, 2010) have pointed out that because so much formal maths is related to linguistic ability, those with communication problems are very likely to be at a serious natural disadvantage in learning.

A simple AAC system can be used to provide access to numbers. For example ,a 12 location overlay can be set out to cover all the numbers (0 thru 9) as well as perhaps an addition and equals signs. In this way the Learner can count forwards and backwards with simple numbers as well as performing simple additions.

Of course, there are so many other ideas that involve numbers and counting:

- Nursery Rhymes with numbers can be illustrated (Once I caught a fish alive,
ten green bottles, five little speckled frogs, ...)
- singing songs that contain numbers;
- asking for more (please can I have one more);
- completing a census (see idea above) or survey (although the idea in the cartoon is
a little extreme!

See Also:

Berger, A. & Morris, D. (2000). Implementing the National Numeracy Strategy for Pupils with Learning Difficulties: access to the daily mathematics lesson. London: David Fulton Publishers.

Browder, D.M., & Grasso, E. (1999) Teaching Money Skills to Individuals with Mental Retardation: A Research Review with Practical Applications. Remedial and Special Education, 20(5): 297-308

Butler, F.M., Miller, S.P., Lee, K.H., Pierce, T. (2001) Teaching mathematics to students with mild-to-moderate mental retardation: a review of the literature. Mental retardation, 39(1): 20-31

Carpenter, B. (2010) Curriculum Reconciliation and Children with Complex Learning Difficulties and Disabilities. London: Specialist Schools and Academies Trust.

Carpenter, B., Cockbill, B., Egerton, J. and English, J. (2010). Children with complex learning difficulties and disabilities: developing meaningful pathways to personalised learning. The SLD Experience. Volume 58: pp.3-10.

Cihak, D.F., & Grim, J. (2008) Teaching students with autism spectrum disorder and moderate intellectual disabilities to use counting-on strategies to enhance independent purchasing skills. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 2(4): 716-727

DfES (2003). Teaching the daily mathematics lesson to children with severe or profound and multiple learning difficulties: Training File, Department for Education and Skills

Dole, S. (2003) Applying Psychological Theory to Helping Students Overcome Learned Difficulties in Mathematics: an alternative approach to intervention. School Psychology International, Volume 24 (1), pp. 95-114.

Fazio, B. (1999) Arithmetic calculation, short term memory and language performance in children with specific language impairment; a five year follow-up. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing, Volume 42 (2), pp. 420 - 431.

Geary, D.C. (2004). Mathematics and Learning Disabilities, Journal of Learning Disabilities, Volume 37 (1), pp. 4 - 15

Hanich, L.B., Jordan, N.C., Kaplan, D., & Dick, J. (2001). Performance across different areas of mathematical cognition in children with learning difficulties, Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 93 (3), pp. 615 – 626

Jordan, N.C., Kaplan, D., & Hanich, L.B. (2002). Achievement Growth in Children With Learning Difficulties in Mathematics: Findings of a Two-Year Longitudinal Study, Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 94 (3), pp. 586 – 597

Lacey, P. (2009). Developing Thinking and Problem Solving Skills. The SLD Experience. Issue 54.

Longhorn, F. (200). Numeracy for very special people, Catalyst Education Resources Limited

McEvoy, J. (1991). Facilitating classroom based research on the teaching of number to children with severe learning difficulties. European Journal of Special Needs Education, Volume 6 (2).

Paterson, S. J., Girelli, L., Butterworth, B. and Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2006) Are numerical impairments syndrome specific? Evidence from Williams syndrome and Down's syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. Volume 47 (2), pp.190-204.

Porter J. (1996), A Study of Procedural and Conceptual Understanding of Counting by Pupils with Severe Learning Difficulties. Unpublished PhD. University of London.

Porter, J. (1998), Understanding of Counting in Children with Severe Learning Difficulties and Nursery Children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 68, pp. 331-345.

Porter J. (1999) The Attainments of Pupils with Severe Learning Difficulties on a Simple Counting and Error Detection Task. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities.Volume 12 (2), pp. 87–99, June 1999

Porter, J. (1999). Learning to Count: A Difficult Task ? Down Syndrome Research & Practice, Volume 6 (2), pp. 85-94.

Porter, J. (2010). Developing number awareness and children with severe and profound learning difficulties. The SLD Experience. Volume 57: pp. 3-7.

Robbins, B. (1991). Mathematics for All in Ashdown, R., Carpenter, B., and Bovair, K. (eds) The Curriculum Challenge. London. Falmer Press.

Staves, L. (1990). Mathematics for Children with Severe and Profound Learning Difficulties, David Fulton

Yackel, E., Cobb, P., & Wood, T. (1991), Small-Group Interactions as a Source of Learning Opportunities in Second-Grade Mathematics, : Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Volume 22 (5), pp. 390 - 408

Number Song for kids

There are a lot of songs and rhymes out there that include number/counting that can be programmed into simple AAC devices. These include (and Talksense does not consider this list comprehensive) ...

1 little elephant went out to play
9 hairy monsters
5 little ducks
5 little fish swimming out to sea
5 little monkeys
10 green bottles
Here is the beehive
Johnny works with one hammer
10 little elephants
Green grow the rushes-o
One man went to mow
One Banana Two Banana
Ten little leaves
How many fingers do you have?
Five Monkeys swinging from a tree
Four Little Comets

1 2 3 4 5 once I caught a fish alive
5 little bees
5 fat sausages
5 little leaves
5 little speckled frogs
10 little men
Hickory dickory dock
This old man, he played one....
Ten in the bed
Two little chickens
The ants go marching
Five Busy Bees
Ten little fingers
Five enormous Dinosaurs
In the pond
Counting Feet

5 currant buns
5 little caterpillars sitting on a leaf
5 little firemen standing in a row
5 little mice came out to play
4 little spiders
A tall silver rocket
One potato, two potatoes, three ...
Two fat gentlemen
The animals went in two by two
One two buckle my shoe
six little ducks
Five little pumpkins
Five fat peas
Sally The Camel
Clock song

23. Dicing with Death!

In this idea, the Learner is both a player and the dice in a game! This means that the simple AAC system must have at least six cells available for number choice. So what's to stop the Learner just choosing a six when it's his/her turn? This is the clever bit! There is a randomiser. A set of cards can be created (as many as you like) that take the chosen number and manipulate it in some way such that a high number could equally be good or bad or very bad! The cards are placed face down by the game and, every time a number is chosen by the Learner, the player has to take a card and work out what to do with their counter. It might even mean going backwards! Four of such cards are illustrated below. If there is access to an AbleNet All-turn-it Spinner then the options could be placed around the clock face and players could use a switch to make the random choice of what to do with the number. In this manner, the Learner's choice of number can not play favourites with anyone playing the game and everyone is included and involved. It also is a good way of practising elementary mathematical skills.

AbleNet's All-Turn-It Spinner is both switch and button operated and provides random choices with each spin at the click of a switch. The pointer and the two card overlays can be removed such that the overlays can be swapped for differing options (the cards above). Thus, there would be a completely random choice of card following the Learner's dice choice.

24. Director

A simple AAC system can be used for giving directions to another. Giving directions is ambiguous; it could mean directing a person to a particular place or it could mean telling a person what to do in order to achieve a particular goal (for example: making a cup of tea). Both can be achieved using simple AAC but this section will focus on the former; giving directions to person to get them from A to B.

Using a simple AAC system it should be possible for a Learner to direct a blindfolded member of staff from one part of a room to another to reach some spot where a reward has been placed. The reward is placed after the staff member is blindfolded and therefore s/he does not know where it is. Chairs and table can be positioned as to form obstacles and everyone can take turns at being the director. In playing this game, the Learner is not only learning to give directions and using the simple AAC system constructively but is also in a position of control (see section on control above). If the Learner is able to direct the staff member to the reward the Learner gets to keep the reward.

Here's an idea for brave parents. Next time you drive to grandma's house tell your son or daughter that they are going to be the navigator and you are simply going to go where they tell you! However, there are some rules:

- They have to tell you using the simple AAC device, you will not follow pointy hands or arms!
- You will only turn if there is a turning!
- You will only turn or change direction or stop if it is legal to do so.
- If the distance to Grandma's house is X miles you will only drive for 2X miles before declaring they are lost!
- No one is allowed to help them. It has to be all their own work!
- If they direct you correctly they get a special treat.
- If Grandma is alone in bed and looks like a wolf, 'Run!'

See also:

Nielsen, L. (1992): Space and Self. SIKON, Copenhagen

Nielsen, L. (1989): Spatial Relations in Congenitally Blind Infants. SIKON, Copenhagen

Sena, L.A. (1999). A Sense of Direction: Activities to Build Functional Directional Skills, Pro-Ed

Stanton, D., Wilson, P.N., & Foreman, N. (1996). Using virtual reality environments to aid spatial awareness in disabled children. Proceedings of the 1st European Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies, pp.93 – 101

Stanton, D. (1997). Enhancing spatial cognition in disabled children using virtual environments. Unpublished PhD Thesis,University of Leicester

25. Don't assume that technology equates to solution

Throwing money at a problem has never really been a solution to the problem, it generally changes the nature of the problem but a problem still remains. Likewise, throwing the latest technology (the iPad?) at a problem is equally not an answer. That is not to say technology is no help in providing a solution, just that it is not the solution or, at least, the whole solution. On a recent visit to a school in Hong Kong catering for children experiencing Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties, we witnessed iPads in front of children rocking back and forth in their wheelchairs. The staff reported that parents had insisted they be purchased for the children. Job done? Of course not. The staff were finding it difficult to know how to implement the technology with children experiencing such profound issues. While iPads and other technologies may help in some areas and some of the time, they are not a universal panacea. Hopefully pages such as this from around the web will provide some ideas of how to implement such technologies.

26. Don't leave it as you find it!

Here's a very simple idea. Every member of staff has to suggest one (small) improvement to some aspect of the curriculum every week (month, term). In this instance it would be to ideas for working with simple AAC. The ideas are reviewed (anonymously - the staff member is not known by the reviewing panel) and one is selected for implementation. There is some little tangible reward for the staff member whose idea is selected.

The idea is constantly to improve what we do, how things look, how things are arranged, how staff work, what is expected ... and those improvements come from the ground up as well as from the top down. Of course, not all the ideas will be practical and some may even be not so clever but, as the ideas are reviewed blind, no staff member will ever be embarrassed and the panel will only know the identity of the staff member for the chosen idea.

27. Easy Does It!

Just because you are working with an X (2,4,6,8,12, 16, 20, 32) location overlay, it does not follow that every cell on the overlay must be filled! Indeed, it might be beneficial to the Learner if you were to begin at a very easy level with just one cell ready for use and the others completely empty. When the Learner has mastered the use of this cell then another cell can be added. This added cell could be useful or just be a distractor for the original cell which still obtains a BEST POLE. It might also make sense to swap the (now) two cells positions to other locations on the overlay to see if the Learner can still cope with the new layout. Adding cells one by one will help build both the Learners skills and confidence and is an 'easy does it' approach.

If the simple AAC system has a hide cell facility, cells can be hidden leaving just the required number. If the simple AAC system has a swap facility the cells can be swapped to ascertain Learner comprehension. If you are working with a paper overlay, it may be an idea to attach cells to the overlay with blutack (or similar non permanent adhesive) such that they can be peeled off an repositioned if required.

28. Eats shoots and leaves

Talksense recommends the book by Lynne Truss (Eats Shoots & Leaves - Profile Books, 2003). It has nothing to do with simple AAC except that it might remind us that there is more to language than a bunch of nouns. Learners have to come to understand how to put words together in order to create meaningful wholes. This goal cannot be achieved if all Learners ever see is page after page (or overlay after overlay) of nouns. This is true even of simple AAC (with overlays beyond the SSS level); we can provide pages that contain vocabulary with which to build simple sentences even if the pages contain only a small numbers of cells. It may be that one cell contains a starter phrase: 'Can I have a drink of' and then the remaining cells contain a range of available drinks with one cell given over to the word 'please'. This idea has been programmed in a slightly different way into the nine location SimpleAAC overlay illustrated below. The Learner can choose to say a single word, "water" or put two cells together to say "I want a water", or three to say "I want a water please", or go the whole distance and build the phrase "I want a drink of water please". Whatever is said (of the above), even if it is not a regular syntactic structure ("please water drink please") it is to be hoped that the Learner gets the water! (see the 'Respondez s'il vous plait' item later on this web page). See also the section on the use of the word 'please' (Please tell me the magic word) later on this web page. For irregular Learner use of vocabulary see the section called 'Irregular Vocabulary' from this web page.

There is a gathering amount of evidence (see references below) that the language we use in everyday speech (and even in non-everyday speech) is composed of a high percentage of a CORE of words (Core Vocabulary). Core vocabulary accounts for around 75% of all that we say in daily conversation and yet (in English at least) comprises just 1,000 words (in Chinese, for example, it is much less). The remaining hundreds of thousands of words make up FRINGE vocabulary. Even in young children (see Banajee et al 2003, and Raban 1988), this Core listing remains essentially the same. Shouldn't we be (at the very least) teaching Learners some of the words that are in common use alongside the fringe words?

See also:
Adamson, L., Romski, M., Deffebach, K., & Sevcik, R. (1992). Symbol vocabulary and the focus of conversations: Augmenting language development for youth with mental retardation. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, Volume 35, pp. 1333 - 1343.

Baker, B., Higgins, J. M., Costello, J., & Stump, R. T. (1986). Systematic approaches to vocabulary selection for communication aid users. A short course presented at the Annual Convention of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, Detroit, Michigan.

Baker, B. & Chang, S. (2006), A Mandarin language system in augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). International Journal of Computer Processing of Oriental Languages, Volume 19, pp. 225 - 237.

Baker, B., Hill, K., Amato, J., & Menna, D. (2000) Do we liberate individuals by teaching wide context specific vocabulary? In Proceedings of the 9th International Society for Augmentative and Alternative Communication Biennial Conference(Washington, DC, August 1--3).ISAAC, Washington DC, 2000, pp. 727 - 729

Baker, B., Musselwhite, C., & Kwasniewski, K. (1999), Literacy, language, and Minspeak: Core vocabulary is the key. Presentation for the Summer Seminar on Literacy and AAC, (Durham, NC), 1999.

Balandin, S. (1995), The topics and vocabulary of meal break conversations. Ph.D. Thesis, Macquarie University, Sydney.

Balandin, S. & Iacono, T. (1998), A few well-chosen words. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 14, pp. 147 - 161.

Balandin, S. & Iacono, T. (1998), Topics of meal-break conversations. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 14, pp. 131 - 146.

Balandin, S., & Iacono, T. (1999), Crews, wusses, and whoppas: Core and fringe vocabularies of Australian meal-break conversations in the workplace. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 15, pp. 95 - 109.

Banajee, M., DiCarlo, C., & Buras-Stricklin, S. (2003), Core Vocabulary Determination for Toddlers, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 19 (2), pp. 67 - 73.

Barlow M. (1998), Corpus of spoken Professional American English, Athelstan and Rice Universty.

Bedrosian, J., Hoag, L., & McCoy, K. (2003), Relevance and speed of message delivery trade-offs in augmentative and alternative communication. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, Volume 46, pp. 800 - 817.

Bergen Corpus of London Teenage Language (1993), University of Bergen, Norway

Berger, K. (1967). The most common words used in conversation. Journal of Communication Disorders, Volume 1, pp. 201-214.

Beukelman, ‌D., Jones, R., & Rowan‌ M. (1989), Frequency of word usage by non-disabled peers in integrated preschool classrooms,
Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 5 (4), pp. 243 - 248

Beukelman D., McGinnis J., & Morrow, D. (1991), Vocabulary selection in augmentative and alternative communication, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Vol. 7 (3) , pp. 171-185

Beukelman, D., & Mirenda, P. (1992). Augmentative and alternative communication management of severe communication disorders in children and adults. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Beukelman, D., Yorkston, K., Poblete, M., & Naranjo, C. (1984). Frequency of word occurrence in communication samples produced by adult communication aid users. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, Volume 49, pp. 360 – 367.

Burroughs, G.E.R. (1957). A study of the vocabulary of young children. Birmingham University Institute of Education (Educational Monographs No. 1). Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd

Cannon, B., & Edmond, G. (2009, April 14). A few good words: Using core vocabulary to support non-verbal students. The ASHA Leader, Volume 14 (5), pp. 20-22

Chang Liu & Sloane Z. (2006), Developing a Core Vocabulary for a Mandarin Chinese AAC System Using Word Frequency Data, International Journal of Computer Processing Of Languages,  Volume: 19 (4), pp. 285 - 300

Chen, M.C., Hill, K.J., Yao. T. (2009), Preliminary Vocabulary Frequency Findings for Mandarin Chinese AAC Treatments. Paper presented at the 2009 Clinical AAC Research Conference in Pittsburgh, PA.

Ching Y. Suen (1986), Computational Studies of the Most Frequent Chinese Words and Sounds, World Scientific Series in Computer Science, Volume 3

Chujoi, K. & Nishigaki, C. (2004 ), Creating E-Learning Material to Teach Essential Vocabulary for Young EFL Learners: An Interactive Workshop on Language e-Learning. pp. 35 -44

Clarke, C. (2006), Getting to the Core of It, AAC conference, Blacksburg VA, USA

Clendon, S.A., & Erickson, K.A. (2008) The Vocabulary of Beginning Writers: Implications for Children with Complex Communication Needs. Augmentative and Alternative Communication Volume 24 (4), pp. 281-293

Crosbie, S, Holm, A & Dodd, B (2005). Intervention for children with severe speech disorder: A comparison of two approaches. International Journal of Language Communication Disorders, Oct – Dec 2005, 940) No 4, pp. 467 – 491

Crosbie, S., Pine, C., Holm, A., Dodd, B. (2006). Treating Jarrod: A core vocabulary approach. Advances in Speech-Language Pathology, September; Volume 8 (3), pp. 316 - 321

Dark, L. & Balandin S. (2007) Prediction and selection of vocabulary for two leisure activities. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 23 (4), pp. 288 - 299

Davies M., & De Oliveira Preto-Bay, A.M. (2008), A Frequency Dictionary of Portuguese, Routledge

Davies M., & Gardner D. (2010), A Frequency Dictionary of Contemporary American English: word sketches, collocates, and thematic lists, Routledge

Dew, J. E. (1999), 6000 Chinese Words: A Vocabulary Frequency for Chinese Language Teachers and Students, SMC Publishing

Dodd, B., Holm, A., Crosbie, S., & McIntosh, B. (2006). A core vocabulary approach for management of inconsistent speech disorder. Advances in Speech-Language Pathology, Volume 8(3), pp. 220 - 230

Dodd, B., Holm, A., Crosbie, S., & McIntosh, B. (2010), Core vocabulary intervention for inconsistent speech disorder., In L. Williams, S. McLeod, & R. McCauley (Eds.), Interventions for speech sound disorders in children. Baltimore: Brookes. pp. 117-136

Francis, W. N., & Kucera, H. (1967), Computational Analysis of Present-day American English. Providence: Brown University press

Fried-Oken, M. & More, L. (1992). An initial vocabulary for non-speaking preschool children based on developmental and environmental language sources. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 8 (), pp. 41 - 56.

Fristoe, M., & Lloyd, L.L. (1980). Planning an initial expressive sign lexicon for persons with severe communication impairment. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, Volume 45, pp. 170-180.

Fullmer, D., & Kolson, C. (1961). A beginning reading vocabulary. Journal of Educational Research, Volume 54 (7), pp. 270 - 272.

Garside, R., Leech, G., & Varadi T. (1978), Lancaster Parsed Corpus, University of Lancaster

Griggs, R.A., Bujak-Johnson, A. & Proctor, D.L. (2004), Using Common Core Vocabulary in Text Selection and Teaching the Introductory Course, Teaching of Psychology, Volume 31 (4), pp. 265 -269

Green, E., & Peters, P. (1991), The Australian corpus project and Australian English. ICAME JOURNAL no.15, pp. 37 - 53.

Graham, K. & Hill, K. (2007), A Pilot Study Comparing AAC Vocabulary Usage Patterns Based on User Experience. Poster presented at the 2007 Clinical AAC Research Conference (Lexington, KY, September 27-29).

Haiman, J. (Ed.)(1985), Iconicity in Syntax. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hill, K. (2001),The development of a model for automated performance measurement and the establishment of performance indices for augmented communicators under two sampling conditions. Dissertation Abstracts International, 62(05), 2293. (UMI No. 3013368).

Hopkins, C. (1979). The spontaneous oral vocabulary of children in grade 1. The Elementary School Journal, Volume 79 (4), pp. 240 - 249.

Hwang, M. Y., Lei, X., Ng, T., Bulyko, I., Ostendorf, M., Stolcke, A., et al., (2004, December). Progress on mandarin conversational telephone speech recognition. In Proceedings of the Fourth International symposium on Chinese spoken language processing. (pp. 1-4). Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong.

Irwin, O. (1966). A comparison of the vocabulary of use and of understanding of cerebral palsied children. The Cerebral Palsy Journal, Volume 27 (3), pp.7 - 11.

Jones, A.P. (1993), A Communication Program for the Cerebral Palsied with Cognitive Problems: Vocabulary in use analysis. Unpublished Masters Dissertation, Sheffield University.

Jones. A.P. (2010), Working with Core Vocabulary in the design of AAC boards, presentation at Taipei University, March, 2010

Jones R. & Tschirner, E. (2006). A Frequency Dictionary of German: Core Vocabulary for Learners, Routledge

Kennedy, G. (1998): Introduction to Corpus Linguistics. London: Longman.

King, J., Spoeneman, T., Stuart, S., & Beukelman, D. (1995). Small talk in adult conversations: Implications for AAC vocabulary selection. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 11 (4), pp. 260 - 264.

Lahey, M., & Bloom, L. (1977), Planning a first lexicon: Which words to teach first. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, Volume 42, pp. 340 – 349.

Lee, D.Y.W. (2001 ), Defining Core Vocabulary and Tracking Its Distribution across Spoken and Written Genres, Journal of English Linguistics, Volume 29 (3), September 2001, pp. 250-278

Light, J., Fallon, K., & Paige, T.K. (1999). Vocabulary selection tool for preschoolers who require AAC. American Speech-Language-Hearing (ASHA) Convention. San Francisco, CA.

Liu, C. & Zachary, S. (2006), Developing a core vocabulary for a mandarin Chinese AAC system using word frequency data. International Journal of Computer Processing of Oriental Languages. Volume 19, pp. 285 - 300.

Ma, W. Y., & Chen, K. J. (2003, July). Introduction to CKIP Chinese Word Segmentation; System for the First International Chinese Word Segmentation Bakeoff. Proceedings of ACL, Second SIGHAN Workshop on Chinese Language Processing (pp. 168-171). Sapporo, Japan.

Mair, C., (1996), Freiburg Brown Corpus of American English, University of Freiburg

Major, W.E. (2008), It’s Not the Size, It’s the Frequency: The Value of Using a Core Vocabulary in Beginning and Intermediate Greek. CPL Online

Marvin, C. A., Beukelman, D. R., & Bilyeu, D. (1994), Frequently Occurring Home and School Words from "Vocabulary-Use Patterns in Preschool Children: Effects of Context and Time Sampling, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 10 (4), pp. 224 - 236

McGinnis, J.B. (1989). Vocabulary requirements for writing activities for the academically main-streamed student with disabilities. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 5 (3), pp. 183-191.

McIntosh, B. & Dodd, D. (2008) Evaluation of Core Vocabulary intervention for treatment of inconsistent phonological disorder: Three intervention case studies. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, Volume 24 (3), pp. 307-327

Mein, R. (1961), A list of words used in conversation by severely subnormal patients, Ph.D. Thesis. University of London

Mein R. and O’Connor N. (1960), A study of the oral vocabulary of severely subnormal patients’. Journal Mental Deficiency Research, 4, 2, 130-143

Meyer, C. (2002): English corpus linguistics: an introduction. Cambridge: CUP.

Morrow, D., Beukelman, D., Mirenda, P., & Yorkston, K. (1993). Vocabulary selection for augmentative communication systems: A comparison of three techniques. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, Volume 2, pp. 19 - 30 May 1993.

Murphy, H., et al. (1957). The spontaneous speaking vocabulary of children in primary grades. Journal of Education, 140 (2), pp. 1-105.

Nelson G. (1993), The International Corpus of English, University College London

Paul, R. (1997). Facilitating transitions in language development for children using AAC, AAC, Volume 13 (3), pp. 141 - 148

Peters, P. (1987), Towards a corpus of Australian English. International Computer Archive of Modern English Journal No.11 , pp. 27 - 38.

Peters, P., Collins, P., & Blair, D. (1986), ACE: Australian Corpus of English, Macquarie University, Sydney

Peters, P., Purvis, H., Martin, C. & Jenkins, R. (1990) Word frequencies from the Macquarie corpus: the newspaper files. Working papers of the Speech, Hearing and Language Research Centre, pp. 13 - 92. Macquarie University

Peyawary, A. S. (1999). The Core Vocabulary of International English: A Corpus Approach. Bergen: HIT-senterets publikasjonsserie Nr. 2/99.

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S. & Svartvik J. (1988), London-Lund Corpus of Spoken English, University College London & Lund University

Raban, B. (1988), The Spoken Vocabulary of Five-Year Old Children, University of Reading

Renouf, A. (1992). What Do You Think of That: A Pilot Study of the Phraseology of the Core Words of English. In New Directions in English Language Corpora, edited by Gerhard Leitner, pp. 301-17. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter

Sampson, G. (2000), Susanne Corpus (Release 5), University of Essex

Schlosser, R. W. (2003). Roles of speech output in augmentative and alternative communication: Narrative review. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 19, pp. 5-28.

Simpson, R.C., Briggs, S.L., Ovens, J., & Swales, J. M. (1997) Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English. English Language Institute, University of Michigan

Sinclair, J. (1980), Collins Birmingham University International Language Database, University of Birmingham

Sinclair, J. (1991). Corpus Concordance Collocation. Oxford University Press

Sonesson, G. (2001). From semiosis to ecology: On the theory of iconicity and its consequences for the ontology of the Iife world. VISIO: thematic issue: Cultural cognition and space cognition, Volume 6 (2): pp. 85 - 110.

Song Jiang (2004), Defining the So-Called ‘Core Vocabulary’ A Case Study of Chinese Textbooks, Journal of Chinese Language and Computing, Volume 16 (1), pp. 63-71

Souter, C. (1989). A Short Handbook to the Polytechnic of Wales Corpus. . International Computer Archive of Modern English, Norwegian Computing Centre for the Humanities, Bergen University, Norway.

Spurk, E., & Hill, K. (2004), Frequency of use of vocabulary for individuals using dynamic display systems. Presentation for the Rehabilitation Engineering & Assistive Technology Society of North America Annual Conference(Lexington, KY, June 15—19, 2004)

Stenström, A., Andersen, G. & Hasund I. K. (2001), Trends in Teenage Talk: Corpus compilation, analysis and findings. John Benjamins publishing

Stuart, S. (1991), Topic and vocabulary use patterns of elderly men and women in two age cohorts. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska–Lincoln.

Stuart S., Beukelman D., & King J. (1997). Vocabulary Use by Older Adults in Extended Conversations, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 13 (1), March 1997

Stuart‌, S., Vanderhoof‌, D., & Beukelman‌ D. (1993), Topic and vocabulary use patterns of elderly women, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 9 (2), pp. 95-110

Svartvik, J. (Ed.)(1990), The London Corpus of Spoken English: Description and Research. Lund Studies in English 82. Lund University Press, 1990.

Trembath, D., Balandin, S., & Togher L. (2007) Vocabulary selection for Australian children who use augmentative and alternative communication. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, Volume 32 (4), 291-301

Trnka, K., Yarrington, D., McCoy, K., & Pennington, C. (2006), Topic modelling in fringe word prediction for AAC, International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces, Proceedings of the 11th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces. Sydney, Australia

Tseng, S. C. (2004), Spontaneous mandarin production: Results of a corpus-based study. In Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Chinese Spoken Language Processing (Hong Kong, December 15--18). Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, pp. 29 - 32.

Van Tatenhove, G. (1986). Vocabulary versatility for the person who is non-speaking. Communicating Together, Volume 4, pp. 19 - 20.

Van Tatenhove, G. (1989). Considering vocabulary versatility as a measure of effective use of a symbol set. In Augmentative Communication: Implementation Strategies. Blackstone, S., Cassatt James, E.L., &. Bruskin , D.M.  (pp. 3-113 -133).  American Speech-Language-Hearing Association

Van Tatenhove, G. (1989). Training caregivers and facilitators to select vocabulary. In Augmentative Communication: Implementation Strategies.  Blackstone, S., Cassatt James, E.L., &. Bruskin , D.M. (pp. 6-30-42). American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
Van Tatenhove, G. (2007). Normal Language Development, Generative Language & AAC, http://www.vantatenhove.com/files/NLDAAC.pdf

Venkatagiri, H. S. (1995). Techniques for enhancing communication productivity in AAC: A review of research. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, Volume 4, pp. 36 - 45.

Vernon P. E. (1948), A preliminary investigation of the vocabulary of Scottish children entering schools. Studies in reading, Volume 1, University of London press

Wei, M. (1973), A newspaper's vocabulary: A raw frequency count of the words in the South China morning post, Chinese University of Hong Kong

Wei-Yun Ma & Keh-Jiann Chen (2003), Introduction to CKIP Chinese word segmentation system for the first international Chinese Word Segmentation Bakeoff, Proceedings of the second SIGHAN workshop on Chinese language processing, pp.168-171, July 11-12, 2003, Sapporo, Japan

West, M. (1953). A General Service List of English Words with Semantic Frequencies and a Supplementary Word-List for the Writing of Popular Science and Technology. London: Longman, Green

Yong Ho (2001), Chinese-English Frequency Dictionary: A Study Guide to Mandarin Chinese's 500 Most Frequently Used Words, Hippocrene Books

Yorkston, K., Fried-Oken, M., & Beukelman, D. (1988), Single word vocabulary needs: Studies from various non-speaking populations. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 4, pp. 149.

Yorkston, K., Dowden, P., Honsinger, M., Marriner, N. & Smith, K. (1988). A comparison of standard and user vocabulary lists. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 4, pp. 189 - 210.

Yorkston, K., Honsinger, M., Dowden, P. & Marriner, N. (1989). Vocabulary selection: A Case Report. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 5, pp. 101-108.

Yorkston, K. M., Beukelman, D. R., Smith, K., & Tice, R. (1990). Extended communication samples of augmented communicators II: Analysis of Multi-Word Sequences. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, Volume 55 (2), pp. 225 - 230.

Yorkston, K., Smith, K., & Beukelman, D. (1990), Extended communication samples of augmented communicators: I. A comparison of individualized versus standard vocabularies. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, Volume 55, pp. 217 – 224.

29. Flyswatting

What is flyswatting and what problems arise from it? Let us imagine a situation in a special education establishment: a staff member is moving around a group sitting in a classroom and offering a single BIGmack to each Learner in turn. The Learners are required to activate the BIGmack which then says some message or plays some sound. The staff member makes a comment and then moves away. The BIGmack does not carry a symbol. What do we make of such an activity? What is the Learner actually learning? If we were to ask "and you are doing that because?" What would be the response?

In such situations the Learner is (most likely) presented with BIGmacks throughout the day; maybe an identical BIGmack (same colour) several times. Each time it is presented, the BIGmack says or does something different and, without even a symbol to give some cue as to what is happening, what is the Learner to make of it all (especially if that Learner is experiencing PMLD)? A Learner may learn to 'flyswat' the BIGmack as it is presented and views the staff member's response as a desirable reward to that behaviour. However, such 'flyswatting' activity is viewed entirely differently by the staff member concerned:  Staff may assume the Learner's 'co-operation' equates with an understanding of their objective(s) for the session. This may be far from the truth. Of course, some Learners may understand the intent of the session but how do we sort those that do from those that don't as both activate the BIGmack when presented?

Flyswatting is a feature of passivity not activity, or incusion or involvement, although it may be proffered as evidence of such by some staff.
Flyswatting is therefore defined as a conditioned response to a stilmulus with minimum cognitive engagement. The Learner is simply conditioned, over a period of time, to respond in a certain way to the presence of a SGD (Speech Generating Device), switch, communication board and can do so with the very minimum of cognitive engagement. As such, evidence of fly-swatting is an indicator of passivity.

A Learner may have to go through some form of fly-swatting stage in the beginning to interact with any system. However, the difference here is, once the interaction is established, the Learner is tasked to move beyond simply the act of activation and to engage in a task which is cognitively challenging. Consider learning to ride a bike ... at first it is a difficult process but eventually it becomes automatic and we are not conscious of what we need to do to achieve this feat. If we were cycling along a straight road without any obstacles we would not now be cognitively engaged and, like driving a familar route, suddenly realise that we have reached a point on the journey without being conscious of how we got there! Once the task has been mastered therefore and automaticity is acquired, we need to move on to a further objective. It is the cognitive engagement with the new objective that moves the Learner beyond the act of merely fly-swatting.

How can you tell if a Learner is just fly swatting? That is a difficult question to answer. However, if the Learner has been using a particular system for some time (T) which is greater than the time taken to Automaticity (A) then, unless there is cognitive engagement (C), there is a potential for fly-swatting (F):

                                                         If T > A & C = 0 then F

The question then becomes, 'How can I tell if the Learner is Cognitively Engaged'?

How can you avoid introducing fly swatting activities? Answer the following questions about the activity:

-     Could I achieve a result with my eyes closed?                                                                       Yes 0 No 1
-     Does the action demonstrate a competence beyond that of the action itself?                           Yes 1 No 0
-     Could I continue to get a correct response by accident?                                                        Yes 0 No 1
-     Is it part of a progressive sequence towards a particular goal?                                                Yes 1 No 0
-     Is it a didactic strategy designed to teach awareness of the activity?                                      Yes 1  No 0

Let us take an actual example and work through the above questions: A child is presented with a communication board at break time and asked to choose a drink. The board has previously been presented many times. It is not just being introduced.

The child reaches out and touches the board. A drink has been chosen!

Could I achieve a result with my eyes closed?      YES (0)
Does it demonstrate a competence?                  NO   (0)
Could I get a correct repsonse by accident          YES (0)
Is it part of a progressive sequence                    NO    (0)
Is it part of a didactic strategy                             NO    (0)

What is the score tally? Zero! Not a single point has been gained. The nearer the score is to zero, the more likely the activity is fly-swatting.

In this situation, anything the child touches provides a correct answer to the staff member's question: there is no possibility of being wrong, especially if all are drinks the Learner likes. The Learner could be responding in a fully cognisant manner, of course, but how would we know? So often, staff assume cognisance rather than testing for understanding.

Even if the Learner and the board have previously been tested and it has been shown beyond any doubt that the Learner is aware of all the symbols, the activity might still be considered as fly-swatting because, in any educational establishment, the goal should continually be to move beyond what has been learned and to progress the Learner further towards the Three I's. Admittedly, this is a lesser form of fly-swatting than the scenario in which it has NOT been shown that the Learner is fully cognisant of all the symbols on the board.

Cognitive engagement therefore removes an activity from mere fly-swatting. Therefore, we must consider Cognitive Engagement. See the section on Cognitive Engagement on this webpage

The image right is from 'Involve Me: Practical guide. How to involve people with profound and multiple learning disabilities (PMLD) in decision-making and consultation' from a collaboration between MENCAP and BILD published in 2011.

www.bild.org.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=3115

You will note that the BIGmack being presented is both hand-held and without any symbol. Indeed, all such images in the document appear to be without symbol although most are photographed facing away and so it is difficult to tell. The guide is a great piece of work overall and I recommend it to you. I have no wish to criticise either MENCAP or BILD as they are both excellent organisations, worthy of great praise, but such a guide should evidence excellent practice throughout and this small part of it appears to be less than that. Of course, I do not know the people in the image or the circumstances in which the photograph was taken and therefore the situation might have been appropriate educationally. However, it does not, in my opinion, send out a vision of good practice to all who see it. You may disagree! There is a form at the bottom of this page for such comments.

Fly-swatting, in Learners experiencing PMLD, is of concern if staff are assuming that the practice is inclusive and of benefit. It might be considered to be neither!

30. Foreign Frases

Using simple AAC systems it is possible to speak in other languages Most simple AAC systems have a recording facility and therefore, providing you can find someone to speak the words for the recording in the alternate language if you are not fluent yourself, the vocabulary can easily be recorded and saved.

There are, at least, two possibilities for foreign language use of simple AAC. The first is to use it as a teaching aid to both teach words and also to act as a assessment/testing system after the teaching is complete. The learner might listen to a word in one language and try and locate its equivalent in another (see the overlays below). The second approach would be to use the simple AAC system for Learners who speak English as a Second Language (ESL) outside of home but speak another language with their family at home. There are again, at least, two options here, either program half of the overlay in English and repeat the images but with the second language on the other half, OR complete a whole overlay in English (and save), and then modify the overlay to speak in the alternate language (and save again with a different name) (perhaps the same name with an E extension for English and a P extension for Polish, for example).

See also:

Chong, R. (2006). The Teaching of Functional Language Skills in a Second Language to a Child with Autism, Kata, Volume 8 (2), pp. 89 - 100

In the Chinese overlay below, the English words are in order but the Chinese are mixed so as to be a system for learning Chinese or testing Chinese. However, if the Learner had English as a second language and spoke Mandarin at home then the rows could correspond.

31. Forget To Remember

Here is a trick that anyone can do: Forget to remember!! Here is how it works:

     -     Tell the learner that you have run out of something that you really need.
           Let's say, for example, coffee;
     -     Ask the Learner to remind you to get some when you are at the store;
     -     Provide the Learner with a method of reminding you: the word coffee on a
simple AAC system;
     -     Show the Learner how to use the provided method to remind you.
           Do this before going to the store;
     -     On the way to the store keep reminding the Learner that they must remind you
to get coffee;
     -     When you get to the store ... guess what? You forget to remember the coffee!
           You must make no mention of it.
     -     Will the Learner use their simple AAC system to remind you as you demonstrated?
     -     Huge praise if the Learner remembers and uses the system;
     -     If the Learner 'forgets' then ... do NOT suddenly remember and buy coffee anyway:  that just defeats the object of the exercise.
     -     Wait, till after the store and, then, remember.
     -     Ask the Learner what they had to remember to tell you and why they didn't tell you! It's their responsibility after all.
     -     Keep trying!

Again, this is putting a a little control in the hands of the Learner. The Learner is responsible for doing something. It can be more complex for more advanced Learners or really simple for those just at the beginning. You can be stood right in front of the coffee in the store (with a novice Learner) and throw out big hints ... 'I knew there was something I had to buy but I cannot think of what it was... oh well, it might come to me!". Do not simply buy the coffee ... it simply provides the wrong message. Continue the saga until after the store ... even going back to the store to practice! Make a big fuss about it all and praise highly when success is achieved.

When the Learner can perform the task without a problem, step it up! Give the Learner two or more things to remind you to buy from the store and add other store things to the learner's overlay! The learner now has to discriminate between the symbols and select the correct ones to 'remind' you what you need. Maybe, eventually, the Learner will be able to go to the store on his or her own!

One more thing: do not stick simply to nouns: teach language (see earlier on this page). That is, after the Learner has mastered the art of the reminder, ask the Learner to tell you to 'buy coffee', or 'big coffee', or 'buy two big coffees' ... A novice needs to learn language not just a bunch of nouns.

32. Game Play

The use of games as a pragmatic strategy has been highlighted by Nordquist, C. & Faley Smith, J. (1988) (See also Jeffree, D. & McConkey, R. 1976, Musselwhite, C. 1985, Kaloustian, H. & Winn, P. 1989, Crislip, D. & Osterling, A. 1994; Jans, D. & Gilbride, R. 1994; Price, K. 1995; Kirkland, J., Bode, T., & Clarke A.). Nordquist and Faley Smith (op.cit.) identify six ‘aspects inherent in playing games’ that ‘help the..... system user practice and acquire conversational skills’:

- turn taking;
-   listening and response skills;
-   making requests;
-   commenting;
-   control or direction of action;
   -   use of appropriate language.

Furthermore, Jans, D. and Gilbride, R. (1994) list five philosophical points which should underpin any game:

-   communication should be fun;
-   games should be based on the normal activities of children;
-   games should be easy to use;
-   games should be flexible to meet changing individual needs or circumstances;
-   games should promote active communication.

"You must avoid the danger of making the game into an exercise or letting it become a chore either for you or the child. This often hinders rather than helps the child’s learning, and can be very wearing on your patience." (Jeffree, D. & McConkey, R. 1976)

Not only is playing games highly motivational but much of the language can be predicted and taught in advance. Parents may feel easier and more natural playing a game with their child rather than following an intervention programme which may be alien to their normal home routine. Games can be identified which are commonly played at home (or other places frequented by users) and the words needed can be added to the vocabulary. Work can then proceed in teaching the vocabulary and playing one or two games in the educational setting.

For example, ‘Simon Says’ is one such game. It can be easily programmed to reflect the area of study:
Simon says, ‘Drink coke’
Simon says, ‘Drink tea’
and for verbs:
Simon says, ‘Run’
Simon says, ‘Kiss’
The facilitator performing the actions until the user says either:
Simon says, ‘Stop’,
or plain ‘Stop’ (In which case, if you do, you are out!)

"With our variety of ages and experience levels in assistive device use, we needed a fun way to practice saying each other’s names quickly and to learn to recognize the voice characteristics of each student’s device. Our answer was the game "Doggie, doggie, who’s got the bone?” In this game one student was sheltered behind a screen while a ‘bone’ was hidden in another student’s lap or pack. The student behind the screen then asked “Doggie, doggie, who’s got the bone?” The holder of the bone responded with “bark, bark.” The screen was then removed and the previously sheltered student guessed whose voice had been barking." (Funk, J., Wingate, M., & Chiu, W. 1990)

A further source of material is the computer game. Generally speaking, space invader type games are not very useful since by the time the Learner has commented on the next move, the aliens have blown up all the bases. However, there are a number of computer games in which the computer waits for the player to input some information (‘Connect Four’, or a simple adventure game). The facilitator can encourage the Learner to direct what should be keyed in. Again some preparatory work will probably be necessary before embarking on such a venture. Some electronic communication aids can be used as keyboard emulators and the Learner can directly input information to the computer. In some cases, the information the computer requires is not language but perhaps a grid reference or pointing with a cursor. This does not encourage language use to make explicit the user’s chosen move. However, a facilitator, sitting close by, can interact with the user to encourage comments on the game.

Simple AAC pages can be created to be used by a Learner to communicate during a specific game. Almost any game can be programmed into an AAC system in such a way to permit a Learner to participate: games as diverse as 'rock, paper, scissors', 'Monopoly', and 'Blackjack' can all have their own pages.

As games are very motivating, Learners are likely to want to participate and, if simple AAC overlays can be constructed to be both easy to use as well as effective, there is the opportunity for a great deal of communication. Other game participants should be instructed NOT to do things on behalf of the Learner unless the Learner specifically asks. It is no use preparing such pages if the other game participants are going to negate all the work! Of course, it is OK to let the Learner win the game as long as their has been lots of communication, simple AAC use and FUN!

Overlays can be as simple or as comprehensive as required by the game and the specific needs of the Learner. The overlays detailed below are not particularly complex, for example, and yet enable Learner participation. Where working from a simple AAC system would be considered a disadvantage the other game players can be similarly handicapped!

See also the section on Dice on this web page

See Also:

Crislip, D. & Osterling, A. (1994). Using games and books to build your voice output fun. Proceedings: 15th Southeast Augmentative
Communication Conference, Birmingham, Alabama: SEAC

Fisher, D. (1992). Fun and games, Presentation at Northern ACE, Oldham, England

Funk, J., Wingate, M., & Chiu, W. (1990).

Hale, K., Lehr, J., & Watson, P. (1996). Books, games and toys to teach Unity, 10th Annual Minspeak Conference Proceedings, July 12-13th, 1996, Wooster, Ohio. pp. 83 - 86, Wooster, OH: PRC

Jans, D. & Gilbride, R. (1993). Games children play, Presentation at the - Communication Matters National Symposium, Portland College,
Mansfield. 25th - 26th October 1993

Jans, D. & Gilbride, R. (1994).Games children play, Communication Matters, Volume 8 (2), August 1994, pp. 5 - 6

Jans, D. & Gilbride, R.. (1994). Games Children play: An introductory package to make augmentative Communication fun, 6th Annual European Minspeak Conference Proceedings, Portland Training College, Nottingham, 2nd - 3rd June, pp. 72 - 78, Swinstead: Liberator Ltd.

Jans, D. & Gilbride, R. (1994). Games Children play: Making Augmentative Communication fun, Widening the perspective. Augmentative Communication in Practice: Scotland. Study Day- Collected Papers 1995. pp. 38 - 39, Edinburgh: CALL Centre

Jeffree, D. & McConkey, R. (1976).

Kaloustian, H. & Winn, P. (1989). Minspeak and its mastery: A game to enhance carry over of communication and pragmatic skills in children. 4th Annual Minspeak Conference Proceedings, St. Louis, MO. November 15 - 16th, Wooster, Ohio: PRC

Kirkland, J., Bode, T., & Clarke A. (1995). Games and activities to practice using your communication device, Yooralla Society of Victoria
Microcomputer Applications Centre, PO Box 88, South Melbourne 3205, Victoria, Australia

Krassowski, E. (1986). Semantically speaking: a game for building vocabulary skills, Tuscon, AZ: Communication Skills Builders

McCune-Nicolich, L. (1981). Toward symbolic functioning: Structure of early pretend games and potential parallels with language, Child Development, Volume 52, pp. 785 - 797

Musselwhite, C.R. (1985). Adaptive play for special needs children: Strategies to enhance communication and learning, San Diego: College Hill Press

Musselwhite, C.R. (1986). Adapted barrier communication games for augmented communicators, Cardiff, Wales: ISAAC Conference

Nordquist, C. & Faley Smith, J. (1988). With Minspeak, you’re never out of the game, 3rd Annual Minspeak Conference Proceedings
Anaheim, CA: October 21st - 22nd, pp. 26 - 32, Wooster, Ohio: PRC

Platt, H., & Coggins, T. (1990). Comprehension of social action games in pre-linguistic children: Levels of participation and effect of adult structure. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, Volume 55, pp. 315 – 326.

Price, K. (1995).Promoting successful communication: Games and activities, Communication Matters, Volume 9 (1), April 1995, pp. 20

Price, K. (1995b). Promoting successful communication: Games and activities to encourage specific communication functions, Communication Matters: August 1995, Volume 9 (2), pp. 22 - 23

Price, K. (1997). More fun with games and activities: Now it’s Buckaroo! Presentation at Communication Matters National Symposium, Lancaster University, 22nd - 23rd September 1997

33. Getting to Grips with Grammar

Simple AAC can be used to help a Learner to get to Grips with Grammar. It can be used to teach such things as:

- adding adjectives
- conjugating verbs
- practising plurals;
- text to symbol pairing;
- word order.

Remember grammar / syntax development should take place in an 'educational setting' which is not necessarily a school or college classroom or therapy room. There is a temptation for all to respond to every Learner initiated communication as though it is an opportunity for a lesson in syntax, "No, you don't say it that way, do you Jenny...". The listener does not respond to the 'intention' of the communication but reacts to the syntactic structure as though its offensive to the ear! The temptation to become a tutor at every opportunity should be resisted! Do not do this to the Learner; it will be counter-productive. "L'enfer est plein de bonnes volontés et désirs" ( Saint Bernard of Clairvaux - 1090 – 1153). Indeed, the intention may be good but all we succeed in doing is making the Learner a reluctant communicator. If every time you tried to speak (in another language you were attempting to learn) someone criticised your grammar do you think you would continue to speak? See répondez s'il vous plaît later on this web page.

The overlays below show a couple of ideas for such grammar tuition in practice (for use in an 'educational setting'! I.e. a time that is set aside for this purpose.). There are very many other possibilities.

34. Guided Tour

Schools and Colleges across the world have visitors, open days, school fairs and the like when lots of visitors may descend on the establishments at the same time. This is especially true of Special Education. One of the responsibilities of Learners using simple AAC can be to give such visitors a guided tour. Of course, Learners can practice first with a staff member to ensure they have the skills necessary for the task.

Taking a visitor / visitors around can be good for the Learner, the visitor and the school. The Learner experiences:

- responsibility;
- pride;
- social use of communication;
- working with strangers in safety;
- benefits/value of simple AAC system.

The visitor experiences:

- greater understanding and empathy for the Learner;
- respect for the role of the school;
- a better understanding of AAC
- a view of the Learner as an independent person;
- a visit to remember!

The School shows that it is:

- being effective in educating and enabling individuals with special educational requirements;
- empowering its pupils;
- acting responsibly.

Of course, it also helps that staff can get on with other things! If it is known that visitors will be touring, each classroom can nominate a member or members to answer the question 'What are you doing in here?'. Indeed, this is also something with which simple AAC can assist!

In the example shown below, from the Unlimiter Simple AAC iPad app, a mostly generic set of 'guide phrases' is suggested. Certain of the cells need configuring to meet the needs of the specific Learner and the visitors. For example, 'My name is Jenner' will not suit every Learner and an appropriate symbol can be used in place of the NAME image provided. 'They are called' is the cell used for the Learner to introduce the visitors to each classroom visited. It may be that its a group of visitors and they would be best introduced by their group name (the Women's Institute). However, if appropriate, visitors can be introduced by name and or title (Mr Brown, the Mayor). All the other cells (apart from Learner age) are generic and may be used as is.

35. Hiding, Masking and Progressing

There is likely to be a difference between the cognitive and physical abilities of any Learner. There are three possibilities:

- Cognitive abilities are greater than physical abilities;
- Physical abilities are greater than cognitive abilities;
- Cognitive and physical abilities are approximately equivalent.

If cognitive abilities are significantly in advance of physical then it may be necessary to access a more complex overlay structure on an AAC system using switches. See the section of this web site on switching.

If physical abilities are in advance of cognition then the Learner will be able to access a greater number of cells on an overlay but might be confused if they were all active.

If physical and cognitive levels are approximately equivalent then the maximum number of cells on any given overlay will be determined fairly readily but may be limited.

Where physical abilities are in advance of cognition, either temporarily or for longer periods, simplifying, hiding, and masking are techniques which may be utilised. Simplifying overlays is covered elsewhere on this webpage (see section on 'taking it easy') but basically means that only a few of the available locations are used (to match cognitive abilities). Hiding cells means to temporarily turn them off so that they cannot be viewed or accessed. It is as though they are simply not there and the screen background can be plainly seen. Some simple AAC systems have this feature but the majority (at the present time) do not. Hiding a cell, disables it temporarily, while:

- staff focus on teaching a particular subset of symbols from the overlay;
- teaching a new overlay proceeds step by step;
- the Learner comes to grips with the remaining symbols in view;
- a particular task is undertaken (which requires only specific vocabulary);

The above list also holds true for the masking technique. Where the system does not provide a 'hiding' option, masking is the alternative. In masking specific cells are 'masked' by covering them with a paper or card template. The template is generally the same size as the original overlay and has 'holes' cut into it such that, when placed on top of the overlay, only specific cells are visible. If the mask is sturdy, it may prevent the Learner accessing masked areas. However, a sturdy mask may be too thick to be incorporated into some system and so the lesser mask, whilst covering specific cells may still not prevent them from being accessed either by accident or on purpose.

CELLS HIDDEN CELLS MASKED

36. History In the Making

I am always concerned when I see 'the history of Romans in Britain' being taught to a class of Learners experiencing Profound and Multiple Learning difficulties no matter how brilliantly its is done (and most of such lessons I have witnessed were, indeed, brilliant). I do not believe that anyone should be excluded from learning about anything except that I do not think that I would benefit from sitting inside an advanced astrophysics session from Professor Stephen Hawking: I would not be at the educational level for such an experience (See Inclusion is not Integration below). I realise it may be argued (with some justification) that the 'medium is the message' and that the 'Romans' are simply a vehicle for other learning. However, if this 'other learning' is so important why are we not addressing it directly? Does the National Curriculum really pin us down so tightly?

For me (actually, it would be more apt to say 'For the Learner'), history is not about what happened hundreds of years ago and which is beyond their cognition but, rather, about what happened a few hours (or minutes or seconds) ago and establishing Learner cognizance of such events as a basis on which to build (see also Zones of Awareness at the foot of this page).

How can simple AAC play a role in both assessing and building the Learner's awareness of history? There are, at least, several ways in which it can assist us in this task.

For those Learners experiencing the most profound of cognitive impairments, the likelihood is that they will be working (if at all) with the most basic forms of AAC probably an SSS (Single Surface System such as a BIGmack or a Doozy). Such Learners cannot tell us of their knowledge of the past or their hopes for the future if, indeed, they are aware of them at all. Thus, how can we assess and or build an awareness of history? Let's imagine a scenario in which staff are working on cause and effect skills (see cause and effect this page) by connecting the Learner's SSS to what the staff think might be motivational POLE (Let's assume it's a new toy). The SSS is set to play a sound to accompany the action of the toy and the whole system is placed before the Learner. The Learner sees the red thing in front of him and reaches out and explores it with his hand. As he does so the toy suddenly jerks into action and the SSS gives a sudden sound. The Learner is startled by this enough to cause a fearful reaction and some concern among the staff. The staff decide that the idea was not so good and remove the sound and the toy and opt for a more peaceful snoring pig instead. It has been my experience, in observing many lessons in special education from classrooms across the world that they share, at least, one thing in common: missed opportunities for Learner development. In the scenario outlined earlier, providing the Learner reaction was not sufficient to put the individual into any danger, there was a real opportunity to observe and assess the learning of the individual. Let us suppose that the toy and the SSS had not been removed and that the Learner was allowed to explored the red thing in front of him once again. He does so. Once again he is startled. However, after about three such exploration, the startle reaction has diminished and by the fifth it has completely disappeared. What would this tell us? Why would the startle reaction, so prominent following the first exploration, now have completely disappeared? It must be that the Learner has accommodated to the occurrence: He has simply learned that 'the exploration' has a particular result. If this is the case then it follows that he must be somehow cognizant of the result of his actions: i.e.. he is retaining a past experience. A past experience is a knowledge of history. Admittedly it's personal history and its immediate history but it is still, by definition, history. We can now hypothesise that this particular Learner has an awareness of past events.

Let's take this scenario one stage further. We stop working with the new toy and do something else instead for twenty minutes and then we return to the toy connected to the SSS. The Learner once again explores but shows no startle reflex. What can we begin to hypothesise? The Learner has retained a past event in memory for at least twenty minutes. However, we repeat the process the next day and we find that the startle reflex has returned but the staff report that they believe that the Learner's accommodation to the sudden movement and sound is much quicker than the previous day. Furthermore, in increasing periods of time between working with this toy during the same day the Learner shows no startle reflex. Over several days, the startle reflex fades significantly until, by the fifth day it does not occur at all. The Learner is retaining information from previous days.

Let us go back to the beginning and assume that when we allow the Learner to make a second exploration of the SSS after the initial startle reflex the Learner simply does not do so. Staff report that this is unusual behaviour for our Learner because he generally explores things that are placed in his personal space. What can we begin to assume (assume not know)? The Learner is 'concerned' about the effect of interacting with the thing in his personal space at some level of cognition. Why is he 'concerned'? What does this also tell us? Surely, it is beginning to point to a possibility that he remembers what happened previously and is employing an avoidance strategy. Remembering is an awareness of past events and therefore also history.

Once an awareness of 'yesterday' is established (see above) then work can continue to build using simple AAC. For example, we might use a simple AAC system to get the Learner to state the occurrence of a particular event (POLE) that is happening today (for example: "Today, I am going" "Swimming" (This can be achieved using a three location overlay; one for the initial message (Today I am going), one for the event (swimming) and a third for a non-event (something that is NOT happening today but the Learner is known to like). Can the Learner pick out the event that is happening today? When this is consistent, we can then introduce a 'record of events' (Yesterday, I went...) and eventually a predictor of events (Tomorrow I am going...). The examples below illustrate this concept using a more advanced overlay (12 locations) from the Unlimiter simple AAC range. However, it is NOT necessary to use something as complex.

In te example (above right) Sam has produced a wall chart for school display in class on the Romans. In order to make it interactive, simple AAC systems have been temporarily attached to the wall such that, when they are activated, they describe a particular aspect of the chart.

See Also:

Shepherd , H. (2004). Assessment of Museum Education Services. An inclusive approach, PMLD Link, Volume 16 (3), Issue 49, pp. 27 - 30

37. Impressive, Isn't it? Making an Impression!

I don't know about you but, when I was a kid (and most of the kids I knew) I went around pretending to be people and things especially people and things off the television. We all tried to do impression of favourite tv characters especially cartoon favourites like Donald Duck or Top Cat. When Dr. Who first hit the British TV screens way back in 1963 and the Daleks first appeared, I went around pretending to be a Dalek almost everyday! Well, how do Learners without a speaking voice pretend to be anything? Simple AAC can give them that ability. My daughter now is an avid Dr. Who fan and the Daleks are still around 50 years later! Nearly every year there is a fad toy or a particular film or some craze that captures everyone's attention and imagination. It should be possible to provide Learners with the coolest catch phrases, sounds, and effects so they can be just as crazy as the next kid: perhaps even more so. Who said AAC shouldn't be fun? No one I know! So come on, empower that Learner to be impressive!

The overlay below is a simple two location affair to allow a Learner to pretend to be a Dalek and go around exterminating everyone! Of course, it would be possible to create a twenty or more location overlay with lots of Dr. Who type sound effects.

38. Integration is not Inclusion and Inclusion is not Integration

"If children don’t learn the way we teach,
        We must strive to teach the way they learn."

The focus of this page is on ideas for Simple AAC. As a part of this focus it is important to mention a very significant factor: establishment/staff attitude, expectations and practice!

An initial point, which we must all acknowledge, is the fundamental right of the Learners requiring switch access to be included in all that happens in the classroom. In 2001, the Special Educational Needs and Disability Act changed the 1995 Disability Discrimination Act to be inclusive of schools and colleges. Thus, it became unlawful to discriminate against a Learner experiencing a disability in all aspects of school life without proper justification. Thus, real inclusion has taken yet another step forward.

However, inclusion does NOT equate with integration. They are not synonymous:

          “We seem to use integration and inclusion as synonymous. This is not helpful and it would be useful is we could agree what we
            mean by each of these.” (http://www.diseed.org.uk)

Indeed, integration can mean further segregation: the child integrated into a place where s/he is not accepted or included can feel more segregated than the child who was not integrated. While we might be integrated into a whole series of lectures by Stephen Hawking, the authors would undoubted feel lost with the level of knowledge required to participate; therefore, we would be integrated but not included. To be included, the tutor, and the rest of the class would have to change their practice. Simply providing an additional (part-time) member of staff to work alongside the authors in the series of lectures and ‘translate’ Stephen’s language into the ‘English’ that we might understand is insufficient and not inclusion.

          Integration + Translation ≠ Inclusion

Including the Learner (who happens to use a switch or switches to participate) may be daunting for many staff. Even in ‘specialist’ establishments, the switch user may still be marginalised and under tasked or segregated. Staff may find the Learner very challenging: they may find that s/he:

          -     is at a completely different level to the rest of the class;
          -     does not understand staff communication;
          -     uses equipment with which they are unfamiliar;
          -     requires additional help from other specialist staff which means that they miss significant parts of lessons;
          -     is too slow and holds up the progression of the others in the class;
          -     finds the level of work inappropriate and is constantly failing to achieve;
          -     cannot use his/her simple communication system to answer class questions;
          -     begins to behave in a challenging fashion after a short period in the group.

On the other hand, staff might naively claim that the Learner is understanding and following all that is happening within the class when in fact most it is flying over the Learner’s head at an incredible rate! (see cognitive engagement) The supporting member of staff (LSA) is the one who is, in fact, completing most of the work on the Learner’s part, for which the Learner is being credited.

All scenarios are clearly unacceptable and none is inclusive.

Generally speaking, educational staff at all levels are already fully tasked with work. They work long hours and put in a great deal of effort to deliver the school curriculum. Therefore, many of the suggestions on this pages generally obey the ‘30 Second Rule’ (Caroline Musselwhite); that is, they can be delivered in thirty seconds or less by almost any member of staff. While some may take a little longer to prepare, once preparation is complete – the materials can be used again and again. They should take no longer than 30 seconds to implement. They can (and should) be used with the whole class such that the Learner is included as a part of the ‘system’ of the classroom and does not feel that ‘special’ measures are being adopted on his or her part (and only on his or her part). Such ‘special measures’ may, in fact, mark the Learner as different from the other children and set him/her apart in an alternative form of segregation.

Several studies show the benefit (for both those with and without disabilities) of the integration of Learners experiencing severe disabilities into general education settings particularly in relation to the social aspects of learning (acceptance, self-esteem, and social skills) (see for example - Kennedy, Shukla, & Fryxell, 1997; Mu, Siegel, & Allinder, 2000). Although some studies indicate  academic gains, generally, teachers find the inclusion of Learners with severe disabilities in the ‘academic’ curriculum much more challenging (Heller, 2001). The authors’ classroom experience reinforces this notion. Staff are often unable to articulate why Learners are using switches in a particular way or why the Learner is performing a particular task with a switch (making a toy move for example)(And you are doing this because...?). In some instances, Learners have been observed following what appear to be completely distinct activities to the rest of their peers in the class and, on many occasions, have been removed to a separate section of the school or college. Learners may spend an inappropriate amount of time on variations of a basic activity (making the dog walk to making the cat sing) because staff are unsure how to proceed.

See also:

Fisher, M., & Meyer, L.H. (2002). Development and social competence after two years for students enrolled in inclusive and self-contained educational programs. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 27 (3), pp. 165 - 174.

Heller, K.W. (2001). Adaptations and instruction in science and social studies. In J.L. Bigge, S.J. Best, & K.W. Heller (Eds.), Teaching individuals with physical, health, or multiple disabilities (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Jackson, L., Ryndak, D.L., & Billingsley, F. (2000). Useful practices in inclusive education: A preliminary view of what experts in
moderate to severe disabilities are saying. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 25 (3), pp. 129-141.

Kennedy, C., Shukla, S., & Fryxell, D. (1997). Comparing the effects of educational placement on the social relationships of intermediate school students with severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, Volume 64(1), pp. 31 - 47.

McDonnell, J., Mathot-Buckner, C., Thorson, N., & Fister, S. (2001). Supporting the inclusion of student with moderate and severe disabilities in junior high school general education classes: The effects of class wide peer tutoring, multi-element curriculum and accommodations. Education and Treatment of Children, Volume 24 (2), pp.141-160.

Mu, K., Siegel, E.B., & Allinder, R.M. (2000). Peer interactions and sociometric status of high school students with moderate or severe disabilities in general education classrooms. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, Volume 25 (3), pp. 142 - 152

Musselwhite, C. (XXXX).

Ryndak, D.L., Jackson, L., & Billingsley, F. (2000). Defining school inclusion for students with moderate to severe disabilities. Exceptionality, Volume 8 (2), 101-116.

Sailor, W., Gee, K., & Karasoff, P. (2000). Inclusion and school restructuring. In M. E. Snell & F. Brown (Eds.), Instruction of students with severe disabilities (5th ed.), 31- 66. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

39. Instant Rewards

Providing on request rewards (BEST POLEs) may not always be easy but the attempt should be made. It is important for the emergent communicator that his/her requests are fulfilled. If the staff response to a Learner simple AAC use is to say 'NO' or 'not now' or other wise negate the communication then the likely outcome will be that the Learner stops using the system.

It is not always easy or practical or even possible to fulfil every Learner's BEST POLES. Earlier, we considered a scenario in which a particular Learner loves swimming but cannot be allowed to go swimming on demand. Furthermore, even if the BEST POLE could be supplied on each and every use, it may well be that also is not desirable: for example, supplying chocolate to a Learner on demand might not be too healthy! However, these issues can be addressed with a bit of common sense and a pinch of forethought. See the section on 'Limiting Factors' for further details.

Thus, it is important to realise that BEST POLES do have limits. If a particular BEST POLE cannot be provided instantly in the classroom (or whatever environment in which the Learner is working) then it is to be avoided. It is more than likely that any specific Learner will have several BEST POLES (some may indeed be better than others but all are motivating) and it may be possible to provide some of these on demand in the classroom.

40. Irregular Vocabulary

Learners requiring simple AAC systems are likely to be operating at a semantic level and unlikely to have a good grasp of syntax or pragmatics. Thus, it will not be surprising if a Learner puts words in incorrect grammatical order from time to time. Should the Learner be corrected when doing this? I don't think so. First, if you are able to rearrange the words into a grammatical utterance then the words must have had meaning for you; you understood what was said. Second, imagine going to a country in which no English was spoken and you had only a rudimentary grasp of the language. Every time you tried to ask for something you did not get it; all they did was correct what you said over and over. After a while you might stop trying to speak and just point at what you want!

Of course, you might try repeating the phrase used by the Learner in the correct syntactical structure without any sense of criticism:

"Water want" .... "You want some water? OK, I will get some water for you"

But not, "No that's wrong, it's 'I want some water'. Look let me show you. There. Now you do it."!

I once followed Mark (not his real name) around a school for a whole day. Towards the end of the school day, he went back to the therapy room and the therapist asked him what he would like for tea. mark managed 'toast' and 'beans'. So the therapist showed Mark how to ask for some baked beans on toast. Mark lived in a bungalow on the school site with other pupils from the school. I followed Mark from the therapy room across to his bungalow. He went in and said hello to the staff using his SGD. The staff all responded, "Hello, Mark. have you had a good day?" Mark immediately tried to say what the therapist had just taught him. He said, "Please, toast on beans". The staff looked aghast and one said, "Oh no, no no. That's not right at all, Mark. It is, 'Can I have some beans on toast for my tea please?' Can you say that. Come over here and sit down and we will do it together." Mark went across to the staff member and sat down with her. She went through the sentence with Mark word by word and got him to build it perfectly. So then Mark said, "Can I have some beans on toast for my tea please?'" to which the staff member replied, "Actually, it's jacket potatoes for dinner this evening and besides it's not time to eat yet"!!!! I had been called into the school to discover why Mark was reluctant to use his SGD. I was able to tell them!

In a further school, I was stood talking to the Deputy Head Teacher when a young girl rolled up in her electric wheelchair on which was mounted a communication system. "Greenhouse go now" she asked. It was perfectly obvious to me what she wanted. The Deputy looked at her crossly and said, "When you can say it properly you will be allowed to go. It's can I go to the greenhouse please." He then looked at me and said, "What an awful accent. When are these things going to get a decent British voice?" in clear hearing of the young lady.

Sadly, I have many similar stories from my past experiences that I could recount here. However, I think that the two above are sufficient to make a point. If we understand what a Learner requests or says using an SGD then we should NOT criticise but, rather, ACT on the request. We should NEVER belittle a simple AAC system in front of a Learner no matter what we may think of it. If we have such thoughts, we should always tell them to Significant Others in private. The Learner will pick up on such negative imagery and may stop using her communication system because of it.

When a Learner communicates in a way that is understandable (although not necessarily grammatical) we should be positive and act upon the message, praising the Learner. We should not be critical and enter immediately into didactic mode to teach syntax and ignore the communication! Of course, we can make a note that this particular Learner is having difficulty putting words together in correct syntactical order and pass this information on to the Speech professionals involved. It may well be that this particular Learner is not yet ready for such a level of syntax and what s/he actually said was in fact amazing given her/his present level of understanding.

41. It's A Fact!

There are things that we all would like to know / learn and simple AAC can be used to provide information about a particular topic. For example, we might build a simple AAC overlay with facts about our sun. The Learner can go around telling people 'quite interesting' things! Obviously, providing information on the sun for a Learner who has no interest in such things is a little pointless! However, there will be other things in which a Learner is interested and overlays can be constructed to support and encourage that interest. From astronomy to zoology and everything in between, Talksense does not believe that there is a topic of interest which cannot be programmed in some fashion into a simple AAC system!

In the illustration below, the overlay provides eight facts about the sun (the top right cell just says 'facts about the sun' as a title). Each cell has a short text to label its contents and the symbol provides a cue as to factual content. Activating a cell speaks a fact about the Sun.

42. Jokes and Japes

Being able to tell a Significant Other a joke can be a great motivator. The joke has to be pitched at the level of the Learner and the Significant Other 'listener' must pretend to find it funny!

One line jokes will work on SSS devices but jokes that require a following punch line (what should you give to a hurt lemon?) require at least a 'stepping system' (BIG step, LITTLE step, SimpleAAC) in order to deliver the punch (Lemon-aid!). If the system automatically moves to the next page (and it can be seen by the Listener) then the joke should be programmed with a blank intervening page such that, after the opening line, the punch line can be delivered by the Learner as a surprise.

It is possible to store multiple jokes on a multi-cell simple AAC device. The opening and punch lines can be paired and even colour coded so that the Learner knows what to activate to tell the joke correctly.

On the iPad SimpleAAC screen illustrated below, four jokes are available. Each opening line (top row) is paired with its punch line (bottom row) by position and colour. The bottom row has the text removed so that the listener cannot see the punch line before it is spoken when the cell is activated by the Learner.

43. Juke Box

Most Learners are motivated by some form of music. It is possible to record favourite pieces of music into most simple AAC systems. Thus, it is possible to create a symbolic jukebox for the Learner to play his or her favourite musical pieces easily.

Some simple AAC systems can link to .mp3 or .wav tracks from a cell but all can record in some manner usually for at least a minute per cell. If you give a Learner the ability to play music, do not be surprised if s/he starts to play it! It may be that the Learner has not acquired the pragmatic skills to know when it is appropriate to sing and when it is not. See the section on 'Sing for your Supper' later on this web page for further discussion on this issue.

It is possible to link a symbol to a particular piece of music such that the music teaches the Learner something about the symbol. For example, using a symbol of a rainbow to represent 'colour' can be linked to the song 'I can sing a rainbow' which is all about colours. Thus, the Learner begins to understand that the rainbow has something to do with the concept of colour.

44. Learning Lists

There are times in many school subjects when it is necessary to learn a list of things. For example:

Art: The primary colours - red, yellow, blue.
Biology: The body parts of insects - Head, Thorax, Abdomen.
Chemistry: Parts of the periodic table - Hydrogen (H); Helium (He); Lithium (Li);
Beryllium (Be); Boron (B); Carbon (C);
Nitrogen (N); Oxygen (O);
English Literature: The principle characters in a particular Shakespearian play.
French: The conjugation of the verb to be - Je suis, tu es, il est, elle est, nous sommes,
vous êtes, ils sont, elles sont
Geography: The continents - Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australasia, Europe, North America,
South America
History: The Tudor Kings and Queens - Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, Elizabeth I
Mathematics: Prime Numbers - 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 ... Time - Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, ...

Physics: The spectrum - Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet.
Science: The Planets in order from sun - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto

These are just some of the things many of us hold in our heads. Simple AAC can assist a Learner to understand and commit such things to memory. Such overlays also make greats TRVs (See the section on Temporarily Restricted Vocabularies later on this page).

45. Limiting Factors

Whilst a Learner's request for another mouthful of food (while being assisted with eating) is limited by the size of the meal, it is often not the case in other situations; a Learner may go on asking for more and more and cause a bit of a problem for the Significant Others involved.

It is important therefore to set limits on the availability of the POLE (Person Object Location Event) rewards that are provided when requested via the use of simple AAC system. Talksense will illustrate this with a particular example although the same thing can be achieved with any POLE. Let's assume that the particular Learner with whom we are working loves chocolate and the particular BEST for him/her is chocolate buttons.

The first task is to establish a motivational minimum. That is, what is the minimum amount of the POLE that the Learner still finds motivating? If the BEST POLE is a chocolate button, perhaps there is no need need to provide a whole button on request as a half or even a quarter may suffice. Sure that means cutting the buttons carefully into quarters, but the goal here is not to over-feed a Learner (and spoil their appetite for the main meals of the day) but, rather, to:

- motivate the Learner into working with the simple AAC system;
- assist the Learner's understanding that using the system is an effective means of controlling the environment.

Limiting the size of the BEST in this way also means that we are not wasting resources on providing complete buttons for a single activation of the system: the relationship is almost inversely proportional - the more limited the POLE the more activations of the system can occur in any one session.

Once a motivational minimum has been established for the BEST POLE, the second task is to set limits on the availability of the POLE in a manner that the Learner will be able to comprehend. This might involve a little subterfuge on the part of the Significant Others involved! For example, continuing with our buttons idea, it is found that the motivational minimum has to be a whole button and it is decided (by the professional team involved) that a limit of just 5 whole buttons in any one session is the maximum amount that can be allowed. A few packets of chocolate buttons are purchased and the contents are kept safely in a refrigerator in a Tupperware or similar container. However, the packets are NOT discarded: each session, the Significant Other concerned takes five buttons and puts them into an empty packet. The packet complete with its five button content is taken into the classroom for use as BEST POLE motivator for the Learner. The packet is emptied onto a plate in front of the Learner. The Significant Other should make a point of noting that there are ONLY five buttons left; "Oh dear! There is only one, two, three, four , five buttons left. Never mind, I'll get some more for tomorrow." The Learner should be clearly able to see the five buttons on the plate. The Learner can be given the packet to see that it is empty. Each time a reward is earned, the Learner is allowed to take a button from the plate. The Learner can see the buttons reducing in number. Each time the Significant Other counts down the remaining buttons such that the Learner is in no doubt as to the finite nature of the reward.

When the rewards are all used, the particular activity (using the simple AAC system) is complete and another activity should commence. The Learner should be shown the empty plate and informed that s/he has eaten all the buttons and there are no more available (the empty packet can be used to reinforce this notion).

What if the Learner continues to request the BEST POLE?
The Learner is shown the empty packet and the plate and is told that the staff member is sorry but there are no more available. However, the Significant Other promises that s/he will buy some more for the next session. Of course, in the next session, the packet will yet again only contain the five buttons!

What if the Learner gets very upset and angry at the lack of BEST POLE?
Hopefully, the above technique will help alleviate such an issue. However, the first time this procedure is attempted, it may be problematic (in this way). The Learner should be prepared for the next task even before the buttons have been eaten: "When all the buttons are gone, we will go and work on the computer." On completion, the Learner is quickly moved to the next task . After this procedure has been used (in various forms) with a Learner, s/he is more likely to come to accept (learn) that there is a finite amount of any pleasurable activity (BEST) to be had and be more accepting of that fact.

Well, it's OK with chocolate buttons you can put onto a plate but what if the BEST POLE is a walk in the school garden that it is not possible to restrict?
With such examples of BEST POLEs it is still important to introduce the concept of restrictions. You can link such POLEs to tokens or tickets that (again) just happen to be available in restricted numbers. For example you might produce five 'walk in the garden' tickets or tokens that the Learner can use at any point during a session by simply asking for it. Each time the Learner asks the ticket or token must be completely removed in a way that precludes its return or re-use (posting in a locked box for example to which the Significant Others involved do not have a key). The Learner can not only now see the tokens or tickets going down but is actively involved in posting them (as in the example) and, thus, can 'sense' the reduction in availability. The Learner may elect to use all the tokens one after another or spread them out to last during a session but, whatever, Significant Others must stick with the scheme and not simply provide more tokens when the set limit has been reached.

You have a swimming ticket above, we cannot possibly provide that on request!
Then do not provide the tickets for such a POLE and do not set up the AAC system so that such a request can be repeated. Only give access to what can be provided.

Some days we might be able to provide staff to go for walks in the school garden but there will be equally other days on which we cannot.
As above, only provide access and tickets for the things that can be provided or, if there is only staff availability for two walks only provide two tickets. Also remember to use the Motivational Minimum in all situations so that a walk around the school garden can be limited to just a few minutes and not an hour or more.

What about other school work?
Repeat requests for POLEs cannot be consecutive; that is, a Learner may not ask for a walk in the garden and then, immediately on returning to class, request the same thing again. The rule is POLE - WORK - POLE - WORK which may be reinforced by a picture or object schedule (See Picture Schedules this page). Indeed, the tickets are best provided as a reward for completion of a set piece of work. If the Learner knows that he will be able to request a particular BEST POLE if s/he completes a (less favoured) task then s/he is more likely to do the task with demonstrating any behaviours that staff may find challenging. Staff should maintain this position consistently so that the Learner is not given mixed messages. If one specific staff member just allows a repetition of a BEST POLE over and over it will effectively dismantle any work that others have achieved. See the section on 'Requesting a Favourite' later on this web page.

46. Messenger Go-Between

Learners using simple AAC systems can be given responsibility by using them as a go-between to convey a message to another person. Mum can send her son or daughter to inform Dad that his lunch is ready, for example (apologies for the sexism). In school, a Learner can be sent to give a message to another member of staff who can be primed so as to be aware that the Learner will be arriving at some point during the morning. The message can be stored as a single item but it is more challenging of Learner abilities if the message is stored over several cells as individual words such that the Learner has to apply newly acquired skills to build the phrase. Indeed, such a methodology can be used as a form of assessment.

In the overlay illustrated below, Dad can send a message to Mum ("Mum, Dad says Your meal is ready") or Mum can send a message to Dad ("Dad, Mum says, she needs to talk to you"). You will think of other potential messages that a Learner can pass between Significant Others and program them into simple AAC devices. In so doing, you are not only helping yourself but also, and more importantly:

- providing control experiences;
- enabling the Learner to experience trust;
- giving the Learner self respect;
- helping her/him learn to use a communication system purposefully;
- assisting with the development of social skills;
- providing the Learner with a sense of achievement.

47. More Motivating Methodology

One use of simple AAC is for a Learner to make a request for MORE of something or for an action to be repeated - AGAIN.

For example:

1) You rock a Learner in your lap. S/he is obviously enjoying the activity. Then you stop. You say nothing. You gently guide the Learner's hand to the AAC system. "Again". You rock once again. After a while you stop and do nothing. If the Learner does nothing, after a while, you once more guide his/her hand to the system: "Again". Each time you wait longer before assisting. The hope is that they will do it themselves.

2) You are assisting a Learner with eating and drinking. You provide the first spoonful of food or sip of drink. Before providing the next portion, you assist the Learner to say "more" with their simple AAC system. You do this a few times. Each time (after each portion) you wait a little longer before assisting the Learner to say "more". Te hope is that the Learner will eventually activate the system for him/herself to ask for 'more'.

3) You play some music and dance with a Learner in their wheelchair. The music is only short. When it is completed. You go over to the table where a simple AAC system lies. You activate the system. It says "again". You repeat the music and continue to dance. Each time the music stops you wait for ten more seconds before going to the table to activate the simple AAC system. The hope is ...

This process can be applied to lots of activities. the technique is to:

- demonstrate to the Learner what to do to request more;
- after each period of activity wait an extra X seconds before demonstrating once again;
- repeat the activity over and over;
- the activity must last for only a short period (10 - 20 seconds);
- the activity must be something that the Learner enjoys!

Would you like for me to explain that to you 'again' ... I am waiting!

NOTE: while the illustration is of a simple AAC system (BIGmack) saying 'more please', I would recommend that you limit the spoken output to just the word 'more' or the word 'again'. 'Please' is not required, pretty abstract, and potentially confusing.

48. Mount Don't Hold

Every year I end up shouting at the TV screen when there is some local news story about a patient who is in a persistent vegetative state. Typically a doctor or nurse or other professional is holding some switch by the patient's head and asking, "Can you hear me Jack/Jill?" The switch is attached to some buzzer or bell such that, if the switch is activated, the bell rings. It's a sort of 'yes' signal from the patient.

The reason I am shouting is that I get angry when I see this technique employed. Why? Because it is bad practice! Why is it bad practice? If the doctor/nurse/other is holding the switch next to the patient's head and a connection is made, what are the possibilities?

- the patient moved his/her head to indicate that s/he has heard.
- the activation was an accident;
- the 'Other' unconsciously moved the switch to the patient's head;
- the 'Other' consciously moved the switch to the patient's head;
- the switch is faulty.

Let's remove the last two options and consider the first three. How can we be sure that it is the patient who is doing the activating and not some alternative explanation? The only way to be certain is to remove the human element; that is, to mount the switch so that it is no longer hand held. Then, if the buzzer sounds in response to the question it was either the patient's effort or an accident caused by the patient moving for some other reason. If we were to repeat the questioning and there was a positive response every time, the accidental activation is eliminated. The only remaining option is that the patient can hear us,

The same is true of holding simple AAC devices. It is just as likely that it is the staff member who is unconsciously doing the work and not the Learner. If the system is mounted then 'staff assistance' is eliminated.

There are times when you would want to hold a device however! This might be appropriate:

- during the training phase when it is desirable to assist the Learner to understand that the activation of a particular system leads
to something else happening that the Learner will like.
- when you are trying to ascertain the optimal positioning for mounting such a device.

Such exceptions to the rule are rare and should be used with caution and only for short periods with the intention to mount the device as soon as possible.

I have witnessed a staff member taking a Learner's hand and moving over a particular location on an overlay and letting it fall such that it activated a particular cell. The staff member then claimed Learner cognizance of the event! This is but a variation on the theme! Who are we fooling? More importantly, who are we helping by such practice? Certainly not the Learner.

Facilitated Communication

This is not a condemnation of the technique known as 'Facilitated Communication' (FC - over which there is much debate) but, rather, of bad practice in general. While it certainly appears to be true that, in the majority of cases studied, Facilitated Communication proves to be more staff than Learner, we are in grave danger of 'throwing the baby out with the bathwater' if we dismiss it entirely. Providing certain safeguards are met, such that good practice is evident, FC may be of help to particular Learners.

49. Naming Names

For some Learners, the ability to recognise faces and put a name to them is an important cognitive milestone. Simple AAC can both help a Learner in the acquisition of this skill and a Significant Other in the assessment of the skill. Learners who already possess such a skills will still need to name names so that others know about whom they are talking. Thus, at least one overlay should be dedicated to naming names:

There can be separate pages for:

- family members;
- friends from school
- friends (not from school) - staff names;
- other Significant Others

and even a page for the Learner to indicate on which of these pages the identity of the 'named' person is to be located.

If you are working with identities, the Guess Who game is a useful thing to use. The Learner has to work out the identity of a mystery person by asking yes or no questions about the attributes of the person such as, “Do you have brown eyes?” or “Are you wearing a hat?”

Once the Learner thinks s/he has the answer, s/he can make a guess. A page could be set up such that the Learner could ask the appropriate yes or no questions (see the example overlay below) and a further page with the characters from the game such that the Learner can guess by selecting the appropriate cell.

An alternate overlay could be programme so that a Learner at an earlier stage could simply describe a face in a picture:

"This person has ... black hair".
"This person is" ... "wearing" ... "glasses"
"This person has" ... "a" ... "blue" ... "hat".

See the second illustration below.

50. Narrating News

Simple AAC can be used to enable a Learner to give their 'news' to classmates, staff, parents or any Significant Other. It should not be used however as a replacement for the Home / School diary system. The Learner may be taking a particular piece of school work home and the system can be programmed as though the Learner was telling Mum or Dad all about it. It is important that such news be the words of the Learner and not simply stored by a meaningful staff member without any Learner consultation whatsoever. The process works in reverse, giving news in school about things that happened at home the previous evening or over the weekend. It doesn't have to be earth shattering news, it could just be that the Learner watched the latest Dr. Who programme and found it very exciting (for example).

Many schools operate a 'news round' during morning circle time in which Learners give a little piece of news about themselves and what they have been doing to their classmates. While this is a good idea, it does involve a lot of waiting if each Learner takes it in turn. This issue is explored further in the section on waiting lower on this web page.

51. Negative Thoughts on AAC Systems

I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it
(Attributed to VOLTAIRE - See TALLENTYRE S. 1907)

Too often we store positive things on simple AAC systems 'I want to go shopping', 'I like it', 'I would like another one' but it is somewhat rarer to find the opportunity for Learners to express negative statements; 'I don't want to go shopping', 'I don't like it', 'I don't want another' and when it comes to such things as: "I am not going to do it', 'I don't want to go', and 'I do not like you' ... well, these are even rarer!

If I put the ability to say 'I am not going to do it' on my Learner's system, what if she says it in class?!

What if any other child said the same thing? Surely, you have a strategy for dealing with the scenario? Then, use the same strategy with the Learner who just happens to be an AAC user.

If it is a general rule that if other kids of the same age can say it then the Learner using AAC should be able to say it, what about swearing?

That is a very contentious point! Many might argue that to do so would be teaching the child to swear and others would say that it is just not appropriate. Personally, I have no issue with it but would probably want to wait until the Learner requested that particular vocabulary. However, there are some vocabulary forms (such as 'Oh blast!') which might fall into the outer regions of the category but most would not find offensive. For those who are emergent language users, it is best to wait until they have a good command of language and then provide regular sessions where a Learner can request additional vocabulary.

52. Object Permanence

Object Permanence is a necessary cognitive milestone for all Learners to acquire. Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen, heard, or touched. That is 'out of sight' does NOT mean 'Out of mind'. This is a fundamental concept studied in the field of developmental psychology that addresses the development of children's social and mental capacities. There is not yet scientific consensus on when the understanding of object permanence emerges in human development. Some researchers contend that it is acquired within the first two years of life, while others believe that it is an innate or built-in understanding present at birth.

Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist who first studied object permanence in young infants, argued that object permanence is one of an infant's most important accomplishments, as without this concept, objects would have no separate, permanent existence. In Piaget's theory, infants develop Object Permanence by the end of the "sensorimotor stage," which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age. Piaget thought that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile and motor representations of objects. According to Piaget's view, it is through touching and handling objects that infants develop object permanence. For some Learner's moving to and touching and handling objects may be problematic if not assisted in this process by Significant Others. Therefore, it is very important that all Learners have lots of 'hands-on' experience (assisted experience if necessary) with the objects in their world.

Using Simple AAC a Learner can request an object that is out of reach or out of sight. Would a request for an object that is not within view mean that the Learner is displaying Object permanence? No, it wouldn't. The Learner may have:

- activated the cell on the overlay by accident;
- been attracted to the cell on the overlay because of a shape or colour;
- recognised the picture and wanted to explore it.

One of the early tests for Object permanence is to cover a favoured object (POLE) with a cloth and see if the child removes the cloth to gain access to the object once again. While this may work for many learners there are some who may not possess the physical skills to do this.Using an SSS system it is possible to link to a moving toy. When the SSS is activated the toy moves. If the toy were to pass behind a 'barrier' such that it were partly to be obscured, it is hoped that the Learner would continue to interact because the object would only partly be obscured from view. If the barrier were now to be increased in size such that the toy was almost completely obscured, would the Learner continue with the activity? If we continually increase the size of the barrier until the toy is completely obscured from view as it passes behind (perhaps the toy is made to pass through a shoe box tunnel, for example) then Object Permanence plays a role. Of course, it could be argued that the Learner may simply be fly-swatting the SSS or attracted to its colour or the toy is making some noise and the Learner is attracted to the sound (or some other reason for continuing to interact) and therefore it does not conclusively illustrate the Learner's awareness of Object Permanence. However, it is a method of assisting the Learner to grasp the concept of Object Permanence and is therefore useful in the teaching stage.

How then can we assess, with any degree of certainty, a Learner's cognizance of Object permanence? If a Learner were to build a sentence out of two or more cells to request (Can I have) a BEST object (my ball game) which was not in plain view then we could eliminate the objections listed earlier and, this would be a strong indicator of such understanding.

That may be so but my Learners are only at the one cell level, They are not going to link two together to make a request.

Then we have to eliminate the above objections another way. If a particular favourite object is consisted requested over multiple days, it would be safe to assume that accidental activations can be ruled out. It is also unlikely that a Learner would be attracted by a shape or colour on entering a particular classroom at a particular time over several sessions. This might happen once but several such specific occurrences point to other than simple attraction. However, that still leaves the possibility that the Learner recognises the picture and wants to explore it. Does this happen whenever this overlay is presented to the Learner or is it only in specific places and at specific times? Recognition and exploration would suggest that whenever the overlay was available the Learner would make a request. If not, the likely interpretation of events is that the Learner is genuinely making a request. The Learner may also be making such a request if the action were random; however, we could not know that for certain.

There is a further important point worthy of mention: if the Learner is attracted to the symbol/image and explores it and in so doing activates the request, s/he should be given the object. In this way, the Learner may begin to make the association between touching the symbol, the sounds that the device makes and receiving the object. A cause and effect sequence leading to the development of Object Permanence. Thus we can utilise simple AAC in the development of this skill.

See also:

Ashdown, R. (1994), Planning for Their Future, British Journal of Special Education, Volume 21 (3), pp.110–112, September 1994

Cotton, E. (1994) The Basic Motor Pattern. London: Spastics Society.

Emblem, B. & Conti-Ramsden, G. (1990), Towards Level 1: Reality or Illusion? British Journal of Special Education, Volume 17 (3), pp. 88–90, September 1990

Jordan, R. and Powell, S. (1991) Teaching thinking: the case for principles. European Journal of Special Needs Education, Volume 6 (2): pp.112-23.

Levitt, S. (1994) Basic Abilities - A Whole Approach. London: Souvenir Press

Varma, V. (Ed.) (1996), The Inner Life of Children with Special Needs, Whurr Publishers

Wylie, F. Tomlinson, N., et al (2001), Quest for Learning: Guidance and Assessment Materials, Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties, CCEA: Belfast

53. OOR

Simple AAC can be used in conjunction with an Objects Of Reference scheme. Please click on the symbol left if you wish to review the OOR page on this website.

Each time an object is presented, it is also accompanied by an SSS (with symbol and sound) such that the Learner not only gets the tactile experience of the object but also the sound and symbol for the POLE. All OOR rules are enforced.

While OOR ideally should be multi-sensory, it is not always possible to select objects that have a unique shape, feel, smell and sound. However, a sound can be added via a simple AAC system if the Object is placed on its surface and the Learner allowed to explore.

Note: Adding a simple AAC system into an OOR scheme might prove too demanding for staff. If it is known that staff would struggle, it is best avoided in favour of a standard approach.

At stage four OOR (not before), it may be possible to offer a single OOR with an accompanying choice of POLE via a simple AAC system: the Learner being required to select the one that corresponds with the OOR presented. If the Learner was able to cope with this, it would indicate a readiness to progress from the OOR scheme to a symbols based system.

54. Opinionated

Being able to give an opinion on a particular issue is a basic skill that we all should possess. Learner opinion is important both to the Learner and to the Significant Others. If Significant Others are undertaking actions on behalf of Learners without knowing their opinions on those actions they may be guilty of some form of abuse. We need to ascertain Learner Opinion and take it into account in the way we work to support them.

Sometimes it is difficult to obtain an opinion form a Learner on a specific topic. Simple AAC can help in this respect. There should always be at least three options: one for, one against and one somewhere in the middle or 'unsure'. Thus the Learner can be asked about a particular item or activity and requested to indicate whether:

- "I like it"
- "I am not sure"
- "I do not like it"

If we ask a Learner's opinion then it should be respected. It would seem a pointless exercise to ascertain opinions and then carry on regardless. Learners should have, at the very least, some say in the way things are done. (See also the section on surveys and also on voting on this web page).

Specific Learner views and opinions should be expressed in a Learner's 'Communication Passport'

Note: It is important NOT to use the contraction 'don't' (I don't like it) if the Learner does not understand such forms. Your Speech Professional may be able to advise you on this matter.

See also:

Blake Huer, M. & Lyle Lloyd, L. (1990). AAC users' perspectives on augmentative and alternative communication, AAC, Volume 6 (4) , pp. 242-249

Cameron, L. & Murphy, J. (2001) Views of young adults at the time of transition. Communication Matters Journal, Volume 15 (1): pp. 31-32.

Clarke, M., McConachie, H., Price, K., & Wood, P. (2001), Views of young people using augmentative and alternative communication systems, International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, Volume 36 (1), pp. 107–115

Murphy, J. (1998). Helping people with severe communication difficulties to express their views: a low tech tool. Communication Matters Journal, Volume 12 (2), pp. 9-11.

Murphy, J. & Lester-Cribb, M. (1997). Helping people with severe communication difficulties to express their views: A low tech interview tool, Presentation at Communication Matters National Symposium, Lancaster University, 22nd - 23rd September 1997

Murphy J. & Scott, J. (1997). Talking to people with severe communication difficulties: An introductory training video, AAC Research Team, University of Sterling Stirling, Scotland, FK9 4LA

Murphy, J. (2004) Enabling Frail Older People with a Communication Difficulty to Express their Views: the use of Talking Mats as an interview tool. Health and Social Care in the Community Volume13 (2): pp. 95-107

Oliver, T.M., Murphy, J., & Cox, S. (2011) See what I think. Journal of Dementia Care, Volume 19 (1) pp. 39

Sutton, T. (1996), Now we're talking, Liberator Ltd, Swinstead

55. Orders Please

A Learner might be empowered to tour around the classrooms in his/her school during a morning session (for example). In each classroom, he asks the pupils if they would like a particular item he has for sale. The Learner takes orders and returns to his base where he prepares the orders for a later delivery or collection at (perhaps) morning break. The Learner may offer a flavoured milkshake service for example with a choice of two, three or four flavours (depending on Learner skill and environment resources) or a baked confectionery service with a choice of toppings or ...

Simple AAC would have a big role to play in such an enterprise. Apart from being self-funding the Learner would be:

- using language skills; - gaining work experience;
- working with numbers; - gaining social skills;
- working with money; - working with technology.

56. Peek A Boo! Where are you?

For very young Learners a game of peek-a-boo can be very motivating especially if it is with a favourite Significant Other. The SO hides under a sheet or covering of some type and waits until the Learner says "Peek-A-Boo! Where are you?" on the simple AAC system (likely to be an SSS). At this point the SO reveals him/herself and says 'boo' or some other such thing and then hides again.

Not only can this be a lot of fun for the Learner but it also:

- gets the Learner interacting with the simple AAC system;
- provides Learner experience of control over another;
- provides initial experiences with symbols;
- adds meaning to words;
- helps to establish Object Permanence.

57. Pen and Paper

What could be simpler than pen and paper? Well that's what the V-Pen is! It's a Voice Pen that will speak when touch to paper on which symbols or words are printed using special codes. The coding is produced by the software which prints to a standard printer, using standard ink, on standard paper. It's a DIY system that can turn a communication folder into a communicating folder: literally, the paper can speak! There are lots of ideas for using such a system already on this website. Click on the symbol left) to be taken to that particular web page.

The DIY software is called Voice Symbol and Voice Ink. Voice Symbol is used to produce overlays for AAC; basically the standard grid formations that are typically used in communication folders and books. Voice Ink turns any MIcrosoft Word document into a talking file that can be printed on paper such that touching any word (with the pen) speaks it aloud. the process is easy and simple because it is automated. The only thing that is required is to add sounds to any pictures if that is what you want to do.

Voice Symbol and Voice Ink can also be used to create DIY solutions for the iPad.

58. Personal Information

Simple AAC can be used to provide personal information as required. It could also provide information on Learner opinions on varying aspects of communication in a sort a mini 'Communication Passport' depending on available cells on the overlay.

Personal Information might include:

Name: "My name is Tony" (First, surname, Full)
Address: "I live in <Town>" (Note: it may be unwise to give a full address on
such a system for safety reason)
Age: "I am 12 years old"
Telephone: "My contact number is 01234 654321"
Communication: "I communicate by ..."
School: "I go to Wood View school"
Family: "I have two brothers and a sister"
Pets: "I have a cat called Charlie"
Particular likes: "I support Manchester United"
Particular dislikes: "I do not like Manchester City"
Special Information: "I am a little deaf, please speak up"
Allergies: "I cannot eat nuts. I am allergic"
Emergency: "In case of emergency please call 1234 654321"
Yes/No Response: "Yes", "No" such that Learner can answer closed questions 'other' may ask

59. Picture Schedules

A Picture Schedule is a set of images arranged in such a way to give a Learner information about the sequence of activities in a particular time frame (day, morning, session). Schedules provide a methodology for representing temporal concepts which may be difficult for a Learner to comprehend in a more user friendly, understandable and practical format. Picture Schedules may help provide the Learner with a greater sense of security as they can look at it to see what is going to happen (i.e. their timetable for a specific period). Learners come to realise that events are not random occurrences and this, in turn, can help lessen any anxiety and have the effect of reducing behaviours that staff may find challenging. Typically, schedules are constructed such that, as an item has been completed, the image can be removed (indicating this has been done and it's no longer going to happen in this period). This may not be possible with all types of simple AAC unless there is a 'hide' or 'masking' feature.

There are different types of Picture Schedules, some of which are detailed below. Schedules may also be constructed with objects.

Daily Schedule
A daily schedule, as its name implies, details the events of the day and therefore is non-specific. For example, it may say 'School' without detailing what is going to happen at school. (see the illustrated daily schedule below). When a particular activity has been completed the image can be hidden indicating that it is complete and does not need to be done once again. Some simple AAC systems do not have this feature and the activity may need to be masked instead (Non-permanent adhesive and a piece of card??).

Targeted or Focused Schedules
A targeted schedule is a set of images that represents the order of events in a particular targeted area of the day. It may be what it is necessary to do to get dressed for example or to make breakfast. The activity is task-analysed: broken down into easy steps that are displayed so as to be a clear and easily manageable guide for a Learner. While the Learner may recognise the scheduled event 'swimming', s/he may not know exactly what to do so that s/he is ready to go swimming at school. A Focused Schedule helps the Learner to do the right things, in the right order, and not to miss anything out that is important.

First - Then Schedules
As its name implies a ‘First-Then’ Schedule helps instruct a Learner as to the order of events in a specific activity:

First you do .... and then you do ....

There may be things in a particular schedule that a Learner does not like to do. If the Learner sees this in isolation s/he may simply refuse to do it and if staff insist it may lead to behaviours that staff may find challenging. However, if the item is seen within a schedule and the Learner realises that after doing something which is not a preferred activity s/he gets to do something that s/he really likes (BEST) then the non-preferred activity may take place without any fuss. Knowing what is coming next, lessens frustration, reduces anxiety, and helps alleviate some of those behaviours that staff may find challenging.

See Also:

McClannahan, L. & Krantz, P. (1999) Activity schedules for children with autism: Teaching independent behaviour. Princeton, NJ: Woodbine House.

60. Please tell me the magic word!

Explain the meaning of the adverbial form of 'please' to me. You will probably say something like a polite addition to a sentence. Now explain it in concrete terms. It is not easy to do that! What does 'polite' actually mean?! 'Please' is a somewhat abstract term for a social convention. As our Learners are likely to be requiring 'concrete' forms in order to make sense of the world, an insistence on the use of 'please' seems rather illogical!
However, that is not to say it should be avoided rather that its abstractness should be acknowledged and handled with care.

Parents have a very clever way of teaching their children this word. They use a phasing out approach that gradually, over quite a long period of time, reduces the cues and the prompts until their children quite naturally use the word without much need to think about it. They might start by simply pointing out the need for the word:

"Say please" or just an emphatic "please".

and then use a reminder:

"When you say please"

later, followed by a prompt:

"What's the P word?" or "What's the magic word?"

fading to:

"What do you say?" or "If you ask nicely" or "haven't you forgotten to say something?"

and eventually they might just give their child that certain look which may be enough to prompt for the word use. Likewise we can follow this example in an educational setting at first we can just indicate (with a laser pen or by pointing) the need for the polite 'please' addition. Then we can use the 'say please' direct prompt and follow our parents example! If this is true of 'please' it should hold true for 'thank you' too.

61. PowerPoint for Simple AAC

You may not be aware but the PowerPoint program can be a very effective simple AAC system! It will operate as a touch screen system on any windows platform capable of running the PowerPoint program. While complex AAC programs are possible, it takes some skill and also some considerable time to do. However, simple things can be achieved with some ease. It is beyond the scope of this webpage to detail how to do this: it is worthy of a whole web page in its own right! However, I will link a relatively simple PowerPoint communication file I have created that you may use freely for any non-commercial purpose. Click on the PowerPoint symbol to the left to download the file.

Touching (or mouse clicking for non touch screens) an image (see screen shot below) will change screens to give four further choices. Touching a choice will give four more choice from which a target word can be selected. The word will speak and be displayed in the symbol display. Touching the image in the symbol display causes the word to be repeated. Touching the ear ... well, find out for yourself! There should be sound and animation. If these do not work, please contact me for assistance using the form at the bottom of this page. Have fun!

62. Praying for Progress

Simple AAC can be used for a Learner to say his or her prayers. The prayer can be stored as a whole or line by line. On a stepping SSS system, each activation could say another line of the prayer. On a multi-cell simple AAC system, each cell could be a separate line or each cell could be a different prayer. The Lord's prayer, for example, can be programmed, line by line, into a twelve location overlay.

Prayers that you might store:
- Lord's Prayer;
- Grace;
- Now I lay me down to sleep;
- Father, we thank thee;
- Lord Keep us safe this night.

A Learner could lead prayers during a religious assembly.

63. Presentations

Simple AAC is great for Learner presentations; presentations to class, to a school group, in an assembly, at a parents' evening or as a part of a play. I used to believe that in using such a system it was impossible for a Learner to 'fluff' his or her lines but, after several less than perfect experiences, I have to admit I was wrong: Learners using simple AAC systems can fluff their lines!! They can say things in the wrong order, say the same thing over and over instead of moving on to the next line, say things at completely the wrong time, say the line to the wrong person, burst into tears, or even be so scared that they refuse to say or do anything at all! So people using AAC are just like us regular folk then? Of course they are! Even if the person does manage to say all his/her lines in the right order and at the right time to the right person, the device itself can go wrong! Happy days! However, don't let any of that put you off using simple AAC for Learner presentations; it's all part of life's experience for both the Learner and for you. If it goes right - great! If it goes wrong - well, so what?... it will be fun anyway! That is not to say you shouldn't think about the things that might go wrong and try your best to avoid them occurring!

Learner presentations can assist in providing:

- motivation;
- a sense of achievement;
- a sense of pride;
- a realisation that the system has some 'power';
- learning experiences;
- memories!
- fun!

64. Purchasing a Preferred Product

Whether its purchasing an item of clothing, a meal from a fast food restaurant, a CD from a record store or an item from a supermarket, simple AAC can be programmed to empower a Learner to DIY. The Learner can be tasked to enter the store, locate the item, take it to the counter, and make the purchase. Very recently in Taiwan, I had this experience for myself: I took a simple AAC system into a chemist's shop and told the assistant (in Chinese) that I wanted to buy some bread (Yes, this chemist did sell bread!). It must have been successful because I came out of the store with bread!

The overlay immediately below is generic but overlays for specifically tailored situations can easily be created. Once you know what is on the menu of the local fast food emporium and the particular tastes of the Learner it is relatively straightforward to prepare an overlay to be used to make a purchase. The second of the illustrations below shows that the overlay size is not important, the Learner can always request a preferred product. If it is an SSS then the whole order would have to be on one cell (unless the SSS was capable of stepping).

I always used to operate an in-out policy when working with such schemes of work. That is, I would establish the concepts and the abilities in the classroom together with the Learner before moving out to the world and doing it for real. In the classroom, I could ensure that the Learner:

- had cognizance of each of the concepts involved;
- recognised the symbol in use for the concept;
- could access the simple AAC system to say a concept when requested;
- could put the vocabulary in the correct order;
- had chance to practice without embarrassment;
- was OK with going out and doing it for real.

Some might argue that it is better to do it for real straight away with Learner's being given the necessary support at the counter and the support being reduced over a period of time. That might be OK. However, when I went into that shop in Taiwan, I know that I practised my Chinese on the system several times in the office before I had enough confidence to do it for real in the shop! Furthermore, I did not want to waste the shop assistant's time by getting it wrong and having to try again. It is for you to decide which is the 'better' methodology.

65. Read that again

Simple AAC can be used to enable a Learner to interact with a Significant Other who is reading him/her a story rather than sitting passively during the process. To interact the Learner requires instructions (Read that again, read faster, read slower, show me, turn the page, go back, ...), comments (Oh dear, Oh Oh, Oh No, Wow! That's good, That's Bad, That's sad, That's funny, ...), questions (What does that mean? How? What? When? Where? Which? Who? Why? and to be able to respond (yes, no, OK, maybe, I think so, I don't know). Putting all of them onto a single overlay would exceed our simple AAC limit and so you must pick and choose and experiment to see which are the most effective (i.e get used) when reading stories to a Learner.

If you are using a electronic screen device such as an iPad you may be able to have several varieties of such overlays available as well as the ability to instantaneously change one aspect to make it more suitable for a particular Learner and a particular story.

The iPad image below is one of the overlays from the Unlimiter iPad app called SimpleAAC which can be used for this purpose.

Please Note: There is a page dedicated to Literacy and AAC on this website click on the Bear Cartoon to go there.

66. Reciting a Rhyme

If you want to recite a rhyme line by line it is possible even on SSS devices as long as one surface leads to another (such as on the Step-by-Step from Ablenet). Rhymes can be recited (recorded into the device ) on line to a cell and, if there is room, the final cell might recite/sing the whole rhyme. Some simple AAC systems have the ability for cells to link to videos (for example, Unlimiter's SimpleAAC app for the iPad) leading to other exciting possibilities for use with rhyme.

Multi-cell simple AAC systems may be used for one rhyme (with each housing a section or a line of the rhyme) or each cell may contain a whole rhyme of its own. On the simple AAC eight location system illustrated below, you will note that the rhyme cannot be spoken by just selecting the eight cells one following another in order; the Learner has to figure out which cell to select to recite the rhyme in it's entirety. Thus, the Learner must know the rhyme and understand how the cells relate to each part.

67. Record of Events

Simple AAC can be used to report a record of event. Learners can be encouraged to keep a log of some specific event or regular occurrence which they monitor and report to a scribe each day, week, month ... The Learners can be involved in analysing the data collected to look for patterns and produce charts and graphs.

Learners might be encouraged to keep a record of :

- the weather;
- absences from school on specific days of the week;
- amount and type of transport on a specific road. How many lorries during a specific
time?
- litter record. How much litter is there, what type, and what area;
- bird record in school garden. How many? What type? Activity on the bird table ...
- Nature watch: frog-spawn to frog, seed to plant,
- the distances covered in a specific period by the Learner (pedometer, cycle meter on wheelchair ...)
- number of drinks from the vending machine. Does it relate to weather?
- ...

Simple AAC can also be used to create a diary of opinions about the day which could be given to a scribe to record. This would not be a very personal diary of course but rather a general account of each day: "Today was", "The morning was", "The afternoon was", "a waste of time", "bad", "boring", "excellent", "exciting", "fantastic", "good", "great", "happy", "interesting", "lovely", "miserable", "sad", "wonderful". You might even add a 'because' and create a 'because page' such that the Learner can say why s/he thought it was 'great' or a 'waste'.

68. Register Roll

Generally special education classes are not particularly large and therefore it should be possible to program all the names of everyone in the class into a simple AAC system. Not only can this system be then used to indicate a specific person but it can also be used call the register. The teacher would, of course, still be responsible for marking the register as it is a legal duty but anyone can call out the names.

When the register is called, all class members should have the ability to say, "Here". Thus, answering the register is also another thing that a simple AAC system can be programmed to do.

69. Remember Remember

A few years ago my son's school blazer was washed (it has been washed since but this occasion sticks in memory!). In one of the pockets was a number of letters from school which he was supposed to have delivered but 'forgot'!! Simple AAC can be used to convey messages from school to home and from home to school. The Learner acts as a go-between to deliver the messages. However, if my son can end up with a pocketful of messages that he should have delivered then there is no guarantee that a Learner will deliver such messages either. However, suppose that school and parents have an arrangement: every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday a message will be sent from school to home and every Tuesday, Thursday and Sunday (for the Monday morning) a message will be sent from home to school. The message will be stored on a call on a particular overlay which is reserved especially for this purpose. Each new message erases the old one.

The Learner arrives home but doesn't give parents the message even though the simple AAC device is turned on and accessible and on the correct page. Parents know that there will be a message but say nothing. It is really important that Significant Others say NOTHING for a specific period of time (decided by school and home together) let's say two hours. This gives the Learner a chance to remember and convey the message.

What happens after two hours? Do parents simply access the device themselves?

No! Parents or teachers must never do that; they must never bypass the Learner. What they must do is give the Learner a very indirect prompt such as 'Was school good today? Did you do anything exciting?' They do not say, "Haven't you got a message to give to me?"! Parents then allow another period of time for the Learner to deliver the message. If the message fails to arrive then the prompt becomes a little stronger: "Any news from anyone today?". That ought to do the trick but if not and after another period of time, parents can say, "Any messages today?"

What if the Learner says no?

Then parents can say, "Are you sure? Why don't you check your message button to see if there is anything there". When it is discovered that there is a message, parents can say something like, "There was a message for us Johnny. Why didn't you tell us when you got home from school?" On the same page as the message should be at least one excuse... "I forgot" as well as "I have a message for you".

The overlay illustrated below depicts a three location system with a cell for the introductory opener "I have a message for you" and another into which staff or parents may record the messages. The third cell is for the "I am sorry, I forgot" message if the Learner does not remember to pass on the message. Of course, it does not need to be a three location system that is used, three locations on a larger system may be commandeered for the purpose or, if only an SSS is available then just the recorded message will be available. If an SSS has levels then a particular level can be set up with such messages. If the SSS can step then the first step may be, "I have a message for you" to be followed by the message from school to home or home to school.

What if there is no message to send home?

The make something up. "Johnny did art this morning; he was finger painting and had a great time." Something needs to go home on the agreed days.

Three times a week seems a bit much.

It only takes seconds to do but, if it is too demanding a task then start with just one day a week or two. It doesn't matter as long as the Learner is being empowered and challenged and making real use of his/her simple AAC system for communication.

Johnny has to be in bed by 7pm. We cannot wait two hours until we ask him about the message.

Two hours is NOT a fixed amount of time. It can be one hour if that is what works just as long as there is a period of time for Johnny to remember to give the message before you start to prompt.

As messages are passed from school to home so, likewise, messages are passed from to school. The same rules apply: staff provide a period of time for the Learner to pass the message without prompting. If that time runs out then staff can begin to prompt. Remember, its the Learner who should be the active one in this: you should be passive. Make the Learner responsible and give him/her the control. However, if they fail to take responsibility ensure that they account for their (in)actions such that the process is a learning experience.

70. Repetitive Story Lines

Books with repeated story lines are typically good to use with Learners who are developing emergent literacy skills. The Reader can provide the Learner with a means to say the repeated line (Simple AAC system) and then encourage the Learner to use the system to say the line at the appropriate time. It may be that the Reader pauses, looks expectantly at the Learner, then at the AAC system in order to prompt for the line until the Learner is doing it for him/herself.

Generally, the rule is that, such ‘prompts’ should go from the least intrusive to the most intrusive: therefore, physically taking the Learner’s hand and facilitating him/her to access the AAC system should be among the very last strategies adopted.

There are lots and lots of books with repeated story line. Spend some time browsing in your local children's book store! Take a look at the 'That's not my ...' series by Fiona Watt.
The AAC and literacy web page on this site has a list of over 300 books that have such repeated story lines.

The repetitive lines in the overlay illustrated below are from Eric Carle's 'The Very Quiet Cricket' . You tube here

IN the overlay below, six books have been selected. Activating any of the symbols links to the YouTube page on which the story is told. The Learner can listen and watch the story from his/her iPad with ease!

71. Requesting a Favourite

"Raindrops on roses and whiskers on kittens.
Bright copper kettles and warm woollen mittens.
Brown paper packages tied up with strings,
These are a few of my favourite things"
Maria - The sound of music

Question: 'How do you solve a problem like Maria'?

Answer: Give her access to her BEST POLEs via simple AAC!

At the start of this web page, Talksense introduced the concept of BEST POLEs - that is, Best Ever Stimulating Things (Persons Objects Locations Events). Once we have a list of BEST POLEs for a particular Learner then we can use this extrinsic motivator as a means of stimulating interest and use of the simple AAC system. Can we put all BEST POLEs at the end of a simple AAC activation? Sure we can! We can provide anything (well, almost!) with a bit of creativity and determination. Of course, there will be some BEST POLEs that may be a little more tricky to supply: for example, if the Learner loves to go swimming but school don't have their own pool and can only use the local resource on specific days and the Learner can therefore only have access once per week. OK so that BEST POLE is not a great idea to store into a simple AAC system as there is no point in giving a Learner an ability to request a favourite if that favourite cannot be supplied.

Of course, a Learner can have too much of a good thing so it is always a wise move to set limits on any POLE provision. This is detailed further in the section on setting limits on this web page.

If access to a BEST POLE is provided through a simple AAC system then it should not be surprising if a Learner begins to ask for it! If a Learner asks then the POLE should be provided. It is counter productive to say such things as, "Oh I haven't time for that now John" or "We have run out of that Jane" or "Jim's playing with that toy now Jack so you can't have it."

If you know in advance that a particular POLE is not going to be available in a particular session then hide or mask or remove that option from the simple AAC system temporarily. See the section on hiding and masking earlier on this web page for more detailed information.

You must decide in advance how much time is allowed per request per POLE! For example, if a Learner requests chocolate and you have found the motivational minimum (the least amount of a POLE which will still satisfy a particular Learner) then simply eating the POLE draws the activity to a close and another request has to be made. If the POLE is a 'walk in the garden' then the motivational minimum may be out of the class, once around the garden and back to class. However, if the POLE is to play with a specific toy how are we to impose a motivational minimum? It has to be something to which the Learner can relate and is outside staff or Learner control. For example, an electronic timer which buzzes or rings when the time is up. There is no one set time which is applicable to all such POLEs, it will vary with the POLE and the Learner and the views of the staff. If you are intending using a ticketing system to limit the amount of requests for a specific POLE then a shorter motivational minimum can mean you can make more tickets available (which means more Learner requests in any one period using the simple AAC system).

Repeat requests for POLEs cannot be consecutive; that is, a Learner may not ask for a walk in the garden and then, immediately on returning to class, request the same thing again. The rule is POLE - WORK - POLE - WORK which may be reinforced by a picture or object schedule (See Picture Schedules this page). Indeed, the tickets are best provided as a reward for completion of the set piece of work. If the Learner knows that he will be able to request a particular BEST POLE if s/he completes a less favoured task then s/he is more likely to do the task with demonstrating any behaviours that staff may find challenging.

You cannot ticket the playing with a toy, can you? Surely if it is available, it is available!

Well, if the Learner can see it that may be problematic but if it is put away and the staff member ensures that the Learner understand s that s/he will only go and get it out of the cupboard <TICKET> number of times because 's/he is very busy' and Learner can only have it for T time that is measured by D device (Learner should be encouraged to set timer him/herself. The Learner has to understand that playing with the toy is conditional on doing a specific piece of work and that he cannot simple do the work quickly and then play with the toy for the rest of the session. I now apply something like this to my own work routine: if I work for T (time) then I can have M (Minutes) doing something I really like. It works! The trick is too find the Motivational Minimum and the Mission Maximum! The Mission Maximum refers to the maximum amount of work that you can reasonably expect a particular Learner to complete before obtaining a reward. It is directly liked to a Learner's Attention Span and should not exceed this time. However, over an extended period, the goal should be to increase the Maximum while reducing the Minimum! The Mission Maximum should probably not exceed a twenty minute time slot on any one activity. For many Learners it will be significantly less than this period.

What if the Learner refuses to go for work and wants the POLE immediately?

First, the reasons for this should be ascertained. For example, if on entering a classroom the Learner can see the POLE, this may cause an overwhelming desire that is too much for the Learner to overcome. Thus, whenever possible POLEs should be kept out of view until requested. Of course, during the tuition phase it may be necessary to use the POLE as the motivator for the interaction with the simple AAC system. However, during the operational phase, following tuition, the POLEs presence may simply serve as a Learner distractor.

On entering the classroom, the Learner should be shown (indeed be involved in if possible) setting up a picture schedule for the sessions activities. If POLE periods are a part of this schedule then they can be represented by a 'favourites' symbol to indicate that the Learner can make a choice of what s/he wants to do next for a specifically allotted time. It should be clear to the Learner that B is contingent upon A: that is, access to a favourite is contingent upon completion of task A and the issuing of a POLE token or ticket. If a Learner can see that B will follow work on A, s/he will be more likely to comply with A especially if this is enforced across the curriculum by all staff such that the Learner comes to understand that s/he will not have access to a BEST POLE (B) if 'A' is not completed.

Thus, there are ten RULES which may be involved in governing the request for a favourite:

RULE ONE: Investigate BEST POLEs for individual Learners
RULE TWO: Do not provide give access to request a favourite item on a simple AAC system if it cannot be supplied.
RULE THREE:    Determine the Motivational Minimum (MM) for any POLE. Learner cognizance of MM is important.
RULE FOUR:   Set Limits and stick to them.
RULE FIVE:    If a Learner makes a request for a favourite POLE then provide it!
RULE SIX: If a POLE cannot be provided on a particular day (or in a particular session) hide or mask it.
RULE SEVEN: POLEs are not consecutive: Learner undertakes set work before POLE provision is available.
RULE EIGHT: Determine the Mission Maximum. Learner agreement to (and ability for) Mission Maximum is important.
RULE NINE: During Operational phases, POLEs should be kept out of view (if possible) to avoid Learner Distraction.
RULE TEN: Yes! Rules are meant to be broken but, please, break them with care!

See also:

Kavale, K.A., & Forness, S.R. (1986). School Learning, Time and Learning Disabilities: The Disassociated Learner, Journal of Learning Disability, March 1986, Volume 19 (3), pp. 130 - 138

Mirrett, P.L. & Roberts, J.E. (2003). Early intervention practices and communication intervention strategies for young males with fragile X syndrome, Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, Volume 34 (4): pp. 320 - 331

Tarver, S.G. & Hallahan, D.P. (1974), Attention Deficits In Children With Learning Disabilities; A Review, Journal of Learning Disability, November 1974, Volume 7 (9), pp. 560 - 569

72. Repondez s'il vous plait

There is a need for staff to respond appropriately to Learner requests made with or without simple AAC systems. Ignoring or denying a Learner initiated requested is not an appropriate response as the Learner may come to understand that there is no point in using such a system as it brings no additional benefit into his/her life.

Staff may react in, at least one of five ways (ABCDE) to a Learner-initiated requested:

- Avoidance
- Berate and Belittle and Blame
- Compliance
- Denial
- Educate

Avoidance means that staff simply ignore the request and carry on as if they hadn't heard it. Of course, the staff member may have been busy attending to some other matter and in the hurly burly of some section of any session may indeed not hear a simple AAC system. However, simply to ignore a request is never good practice. I was once present when a young lady made a perfectly reasonable request to a member of staff. The member of staff ignored the request and turned to me and said, "When are these things going to get a decent British accent?". In so doing , the member of staff managed to avoid the request and belittle the device.

Berate means to reprimand the Learner, the system or both. The Learner can be reprimanded for incorrect use of correct syntax, for asking for a particular POLE, or even for not seeing that the staff member is 'busy'. The system can be reprimanded for the quality or its voice, the symbols on its overlays, the inability to offer the correct words, ... The Learner and or his/her system is belittled. In a school I was visiting, a Learner made a request which even I as a non staff member easily understood. However, the staff member berated her use of grammar and told the Learner that she would get her request when she could ask for it 'properly'! Blame means to blame someone or something other than yourself or yourselves for Learner failure to make progress. Sorry, but it's rarely the communication system, it's normally something to do with working practices that cause Learner failure.

Compliance means to act upon a Learner request. However, it doesn't necessarily mean that common sense has to go out of the window! I once told my staff that if a Learner makes a request they should act upon it otherwise how is the Learner to know that communication empowers? A few days later I went into a room and there was Kevin really enjoying himself with about six cups of water in front of him. The staff were running back and forth bringing him more cups. I asked the staff what on earth they were doing. They replied, "You said if a Learner asks for something then she or he is to get it and Kevin keeps asking for water." If to confirm what the staff were saying, Kevin suddenly said, "Can I have" ..."a cup of" ... "water" ... "please". I realised that the staff's extra activity was my fault! I told them, "Don't you think it would be a good idea if Kevin drank the first cup of water before he gets another?" Isn't that what you would say to any other person who asked for yet another drink when they had a full glass in front of them? However, the moral of this short story is, Kevin was having a great time controlling the staff and he never forgot how to ask for a drink of water and so the staff's actions were not so bad after all!

Denial means to deny a request: "No Danny, you cannot have that." There may be good reasons why a denial is given. The POLE item may just not be available. For example,a Learner might request to 'go swimming' in the middle of an art session. It may be that access to such a provision at that moment in time is simply impractical (I won't say impossible because if school had the resources and the will, it could theoretically take the Learner swimming). A request might be denied for pragmatic reasons: A Learner may have developed sufficient intellect and language skills such that his current goals focus on the 'use' of language. Thus staff might say. "Sorry Danny I can't get you that just now. I am rather busy. can you come back in ten minutes and ask again. I'll be able to help you then."

Educate means to take it upon yourself to use the request as a means to demonstrate to the Learner the 'correct' way of making such a request. This typically takes the form of a staff member saying, "No Danni, you do not say it like that. First you say ... can you say that?" and proceed to run through the 'correct' word structure item by item. Even after performing this feat, the Learner still might be denied the request! I once was called to investigate why a young Learner was a reluctant user of AAC. At the end of the school day, he returned to the therapy room before going to his bungalow on the school campus where he lived during the week. The Therapist thought it would be a good idea for the Learner to request what he wanted for his meal that evening. He eventually indicated beans on toast. So the Therapist went through how he could make such a request to the support staff working in his residence. The Learner left the Therapy room with me in tow. We went into his residence and the staff warmly greeted him. The Learner requested his meal not quite as he had been shown but it was understandable:
"toast beans please". The staff looked at him. Then one member said, "That's not how you say it, is it? It's 'can I have some beans on toast for my dinner please?". She then sat down with him and made him go through the process of generating such a statement word by word. After several minutes of 'education' the learner finally said, "Can I have some beans on toast for my dinner please?". The staff's response was, "But it's not time for dinner yet and besides it's jacket potatoes tonight." Is it any wonder that this Learner was reluctant to use his AAC system?!!

Comply. Unless there is a good reason not to do so, Talksense recommends 'compliance' as a response to a Learner-initiated request so that the Learner understands that with communication comes empowerment, i.e. control over others and control over the environment. This is especially true if it is one of the very first times a Learner has made any request.

Don't Deny. Please go out of your way to respond to a Learner-initiated request, even if it means putting six glasses of water in front of a first time requester when s/he hasn't drunk the first glass! It is truly important. I realise there will be times when you just are unable to comply with a request but please take time to explain in a way that the Learner will understand why you are unable to comply and praise him or her for the great use of the AAC system (even if the words were in the wrong order). Don't berate or belittle or blame. Also don't try to educate at this time unless this is a really proficient AAC user who is working on pragmatic skills (in which case, apologise for being unable to comply at this moment in time and arrange a time for the Learner to return at your convenience to make the request)

Don't berate or educate! There is a time for AAC education and it is NOT when a Learner has initiated a social interaction or made a request. It doesn't matter if the Learner has put the words in the wrong order, as long as you understand the meaning of what was said, act upon it! If you genuinely do not understand the meaning of what the Learner is requesting, simply say in a very calm and friendly voice, "I am sorry Johnny. I do not understand what you are saying to me. Can you say it another way please?". Do not berate the Learner, or belittle his/her grammar or blame the system: it is counter-productive. You may not that the Learner has a particular problem with word order or some other aspect of syntax and report this to the speech professional involved in private (not in front of Johnny!). It may be that Johnny s not yet at sufficient a developmental stage linguistically to cope with such structures and for him to have even requested his request is a momentous moment and one deserving of celebration and no belittlement.

It is important that every Learner sees both communication and the communication system in a positive light. It is our actions and our language that cause so many Learners to become reluctant communicators who refuse to use their system. Don't let this happen to your Learners!

73. Sad but True

"However, knowing that we cannot solve grief, nor prevent it, knowing that it is the price we pay for our attachment to others, we can still hope not to make it worse; especially not worse for people who are already vulnerable because they are lonely, or very young or very old, or sick, or handicapped in some way." (OSWIN M., 1991)

There are times in everyone's life when we are saddened by loss. This does not always have to be the death of someone close but can also involve the loss of:

- a lover (on the break up of a relationship);
- something special to us;
- position or employment;
- financial stability;
- home;
- other.

At such times, we experience a range of emotions ranging from denial, anger and grief to confusion and angst. If we feel such emotions then imagine, therefore, how much more problematic it must be for those individuals who are experiencing some form of learning difficulty. It might be assumed that those experiencing the most profound difficulties are 'shielded' from such emotions by their cognitive state but this would be erroneous: while the individual might have little or no concept of death (or other other forms of loss), s/he will 'understand' that a significant person who was there every day for them is now no longer there, that a favourite object or thing which has accompanied their journey to this point no longer is with them. This 'realisation' can lead to great anguish, confusion, and upset which may result in a change in behaviour. A lack of ability to communicate about such understandings and emotions only compounds the issue. To assume that a person's cognitive level will shield them from all emotions is, therefore, incorrect. Anyone in a conscious state can feel emotions unless there is significant damage to those areas of the brain in which such feelings are experienced. Even then, the individual might be 'asking' why is this person no longer around? Is it something to do with me? Has someone evil taken them away? Will they return and take me away too? Simply because we do not know how an individual is conceiving a particular loss does not mean that we should assume that there will be no response at all.

The concept of loss for individuals experiencing learning difficulties is often glossed over or not addressed at all in books on 'Mental Handicap', 'Retardation' (terms I generally do not use) or Learning Disabilities or Difficulties. If you have such reference works on your shelf, take them down and look in the index for 'loss, or 'bereavement' or 'death', it is likely that such terms will not be found there. Research has shown that there is much confusion about death amongst people who are experiencing Learning Difficulties (McEvoy 1989, Myreddi & Narayan 1993) and that such individuals can have rich and varied dreams about people who have died (Turner and Graffam 1987).

The price we all have to pay for becoming attached to another person or thing are the strong emotional reactions following the loss of the same for whatever reason. Such emotional reactions affect us ALL: rich or poor, strong or weak, able or ...

Thus, there is a whole web page on this site devoted to Communication and Loss most of which has implications for simple AAC. To access this page click on the 'Sad but True' symbol above.

The overlay below is the 'Questioning Death' twenty location page from Unlimiter Ltd. 'SimpleAAC' app. It provides 20 questions that a Learner might ask on encountering a loss.

A bibliography and reference listing is supplied on the Communication and Loss page.

74. Scanning with Simple AAC: It's Scantastic!

For a Learner that cannot access a simple AAC system because of a physical disability, there are alternative options. The first is to limit the overlay size to areas that the Learner can physically manage. However, this will probably mean that there is a link that is rather indirectly proportionate between Learner intellect and overlay size and, thus, the system might be 'handicapping' in the true sense of the word. Another 'solution' is to provide switch access to the system through some form of 'scanning' option. What is scanning? It's a long story! The short answer is that it is a way for an learner to select and individual cell through a system of moving (scanning) choice options.

How does the Learner select?
Normally, this is via a single switch that is either attached to the device via a wire and jack plug or wirelessly via Bluetooth or some other wireless protocol. The scan itself is controlled through the use of a switch or switches (typically one or two switches are used but more are possible).

What is a switch?
A switch is a device that enables an individual experiencing a learning difficulty and/or a physical disability to operate some part of a mains or battery-powered system through a single action.

The most common switch in use in special education is probably the Jelly Bean format originally designed and produced by AbleNet. These now come in a range of four interchangeable colours (the switch top unscrews to allow it to be changed for one of a different colour). There are other similar switches produced by other companies, for example the Unlimiter company produces a switch known as an Access Switch that has a screw on switch cap. The AbleNet switches come in three sizes (small (Spec Switch), medium [Jelly Bean] and large [BIGred]).

The jelly bean switch depicted left is shown with a clear switch cap which is used to house and protect a symbol cut to fit on top of the switch to indicate its purpose to the Learner (shown in the image as a question mark on a white paper circle).

For example, if the Learner (let's call him James) wanted to select the music option from the both right corner of the overlay on the system pictured above. He would:

1. Activate his switch to begin the scan. Each row in turn would be highlighted in a colour selected by the Learner together with
his Facilitator. The scan moves through each row at a speed determined by the Learner and the Facilitator.
2. Activate his switch when the highlight was on the second row (in the example) to select the row. The system would stop scanning
the rows and begin to scan the selected row cell by cell.
3. Activate his switch when the highlight was on the required cell (music option). The cell would be selected as though James had
touched it with his finger.
4. Return to item one to make a further selection.

The above is detailing but ONE type of scanning format; there are many variations on a theme, too many to consider them all here.

It should be noted that:

- not all simple AAC system have the ability to scan. If the Learner cannot directly access the cells on a particular simple AAC
system then the Facilitator must investigate which systems offer the best access options for the required number of cells.
- scanning is more cognitively demanding than direct selection (touching with your fingers or other body part);
- scanning requires parameters to be set: what type of scan, what colour, what speed, how many switches, etc.
- scanning requires tuition. Don't expect to present the technology and the Learner to be able to cope immediately.
- scanning is normally slower than direct selection.

AbleNet's FL4SH system (yes, it is spelt that way!) is a simple AAC system that was designed to teach scanning an is therefore a very good option for a beginner. The one below has been set up with just one choice (BEST POLE) as a means of teaching the Learner to make a selection. The FL4SH system is limited to just four cells.

Of course, you don't have to start teaching scanning by purchasing technology. You can do it with just your finger!

or use a computer program or something such as Microsoft PowerPoint (with which it is possible to create great single switch scans)

and, of course, you can begin preparing a Learner for scanning using the simplest of materials:

One way of teaching a scan pattern (and highlighting the part of the scan on which you want the learner to focus) is to make a set of highlighter masks. These are basically (as depicted in the photographs above provided courtesy of Ms Judy King of Positive Communication):

- a coloured cardboard rectangle with a ‘window’ to highlight the row being scanned.
- a coloured cardboard square with a window to highlight each item in the selected row.

The colour chosen for the card should ideally be the colour of any future scan on any future system. How will you know? Make an educated guess! Most systems are likely to have the basic primary colours as scanning options. Don’t use white or black card! Red, green and blue are safe bets.

The card cut outs also help to focus the Learner's attention onto a specific area of the page as well as teaching a basic scanning pattern. It should be seen that it is not necessary to start with computers or devices but, rather, with simple pictures on paper and a home-made crad frame.

75. Scripts

"... scripts are conversational texts based on natural interactions that are stored sentence by sentence."
(Glennen, S. 1986)

"By their very nature, word-based and sentenced/phrase-based aided AAC system require predictable message sets. That is, when associating graphic symbols with words or sentences and creating graphic overlays for message storage and retrieval, it is mandatory to know in advance which messages will be needed. Analysis of the messages required in the interactive activities of the activity-based curriculum identifies these messages. This expressive language which mediates the action sequence of the goal-orientated activity is referred to as a script." (Elder, P. & Goossens, C. 1993 page 35)

Reference to scripting is generally made for use with AAC systems following an sentence based approach (rather than individual words) although this does not have to be the case (See Iacono, T. & Duncum, J. 1995). There are two varieties of scripts that may be produced which we will call 'closed scripts' and 'open scripts'.

Closed scripting comprises a set of communicative interactions between person A and person B which is prepared and made available through the modality of the Learner's system. The sentences chosen should reflect both the cognitive abilities of the Learner and their usefulness in practical daily activities. They should therefore be age and cognitively appropriate and reflect typical daily patterns of interaction (for the Learner)(See Baker, B. & Stuart,1986, Glennen, S. 1986). The user is then encouraged to role play, together with the Facilitator, the conversation stored, first as person B and then as person A.

In closed scripting use may be made of environmentally non-specific, pivotal, and concatenated phrases to facilitate transfer of the skills learned in these sessions to other environments, as appropriate, throughout the day:

- Environmentally non specific is a term used to describe a phrase that may be used in more than one form of communication
interaction. Consider the phrase "I don’t like peas”. It may only be invoked when the user is given peas or asked if s/he would
like peas, normally at meal times. If the phrase is altered to make it environmentally non specific it becomes "I don’t like that”
which would suffice for indicating a distaste for peas at dinner but may also be used in a number of other settings:
"Shall we watch the sport?” "I don’t like that!”

- Pivotal phrases are open ended phrases to which another word or group of words can be added to create new forms. For example,
"Can I have a ...”, "I want to go to the ...”, "I have a pain in my ...”, "I want to talk to you about ...”. These phrases can be stored as
above. The Learner recalls the phrase and from a separate word bank adds an appropriate ending.

- A concatenated phrase is a short phrase that may be useful when combined with other short phrases to generate novel speech.
Consider the phrases "a cup of”, "a bottle of”, "a packet of”. These, when combined with a pivotal phrase, increase the
permutations available to any Learner :
"Can I have ...” "a bottle of ...”
"Will you get me ...” "a packet of ...”

The transition to environmentally non specific, pivotal, and concatenated phrases may best take place after the script has been designed and successfully implemented. The Facilitator re-examines the script and attempts to:

- alter the phrases to make them useful in other environments;
- breakdown the phrases into opening pivotal phrases and following concatenated phrases which are then stored separately.

The Learner now can practise the previously successful scripts with the new variations. Scripts should be both natural and client-centred(as opposed to facilitator driven) so that they are more likely to be used in the post training period. One way of assembling natural scripts is to shadow or monitor an individual during a period of his or her day for which a script is being prepared, for example, a drinks break.

As an example of the above process the following short dialogue has been assembled between a boy and a girl in a centre’s leisure area:

A) Hello Jane B) Hi
A) What are you having to drink? B) Coke.
A) I'm having milk.
A) (to lady at counter) Can I have a glass of milk please?

The leisure area was chosen as the Learner goes there (more than once) daily. It is known that he likes Jane and does talk to her. First attempts can be tidied and split into smaller, more useful, phrases....

A) Hello Jane B) Hi (or whatever is the more popular greeting)
  A) What are you having? (environmentally non-specific)   B) Coke (no changes made)
A) I'm having a ..... (pivotal) milk (stored separately)
A) Can I have ..... (pivotal) a glass of (pivotal)
milk please (stored separately)

There are a number of problems with the example given above:

- while role playing the individual parts (as in a play) may work perfectly, however, in reality, Jane may not respond to the Learner’s
opening gambit in the manner scripted:
A) Hello Jane B) Get lots
- the language used may be too advanced for the individual concerned;
- the language chosen may reflect the facilitator’s language style and not be typical of the language used by the Learner’s peers
in a similar situation;
- rarely is communication neatly packaged into small A B A B A B interactions. Note that the end of the script is A A.

We can try to ensure that the language chosen reflects Learner ability and is both age and stylistically appropriate: this can be achieved by close observations of the individual Learner in the natural environment. We can also accept, for the moment, that an interchange between two people is not always of the form scripted. However, Jane’s reaction is an unknown and is unlikely to be the same on different days but, if a staff member is used as the second person in the script, then the dialogue can be fixed (for example, buying an item from the tuck shop where the assistant has been primed with exactly what to say). This may provide the Learner with motivating early experiences of success and may be used as the foundation for subsequent work using alternate techniques. Again, it is unlikely that the average shop assistant will use exactly the word structure offered by a script (although McDonald’s staff tend to use the same opening gambits and phrase structures). If this is problematic, a more flexible approach is provided by open scripting.

In open scripting many of the problems above are avoided by creating a number of possible responses to each event. An activity is chosen which is functional, an activity which the user engages in regularly (getting dressed or changing clothes is one example), and a script is prepared around the activity taking into account:

- the items involved (socks, pants, jacket, drawers, wardrobes, etc.);
- the descriptors involved (colours of clothes, styles of clothes);
- the actors involved (Who is likely to be involved in this activity other than the Learner her/himself?
What are they likely to say and do?);
- the actions involved (get it out, look in the wardrobe, turn the key);
- the stages involved (asking to get dressed, deciding what to wear, finding the clothes, laying out clothes, getting dressed).

In this way, a list of things the actors may say and do can be prepared and Learner statements and responses can be added to the system. Real life activities can be monitored to find out what typically occurs and the language that Facilitators normally use.

Help me Jane
I want to get ready
  Where is it?
I want to get changed
  I can’t find the key.
It’s in the top drawer
  Which one do you want to wear?
Look on top of the wardrobe
  You have a choice of colour
Get it out
  I like the other one
I don’t like that
  You haven’t got all day
It’s in the bottom drawer
  What shall I do with it?
Red, green, blue, white, ...
  I can’t find it
Put it on the bed
  It’s dirty
  It’s not here
Is it clean?
  Doesn't really go with your jeans
Put it in the wash
  There’s no time now
Let me see
  It’s in the wash
Jacket, jeans, blouse, .....
  I want to change my ....

This list can also involve environmentally non-specific phrases, pivotal statements, and concatenations as detailed earlier. From this list, a script is prepared that allows the Learner a choice of comment as an initiating remark or as a response to a statement or question made by another. The script can be practised in the classroom with other Learners but it may be better to work in the environment in which the activity will actually occur and with the actors who will naturally be involved. The use of other techniques such as creative asininity and environmental anomaly (see below) may help promote the use of the phrases learned.

I want to change my ... blouse
What right now? Yes
Will you help me?
OK. Which one do you want to wear? Blue
Where is it? It’s in the ... drawer I think
It’s not here Wardrobe
OK. Yes got it. What do you want to do
with the blouse you’re wearing? In the wash
You look really nice Thank you

For more detail on this form of scripting see the work of Pam Elder and Carol Goossens (1993).

It would appear from the text above that scripting only involves the use of pre-stored phrases and sentences. This is not the case, as single word scripts can also be prepared. Again, these should ideally be based on naturally occurring activities and be Learner-centred perhaps created by the Learner and the Facilitator(s) together after a period of observation of a play activity, a social activity, an educational activity, etc. - indeed, any activity that:

- is routine;
- is structured - such that it is possible to predict the vocabulary that is likely to occur in future sessions;
- is reasonably frequent (preferably daily);
-   involves interaction and thus creates opportunities for communication;
- is enjoyed by the user;

"The vocabulary chosen for the cooking script consisted of the following 19 words: stove, biscuits, in, out, roll, open, play-dough on, off, ready, pan, look, candle, apron, Joanne, Lisa, cut, eat, and more." (Iacono, T. & Duncum, J. 1995)

A limited single word script has some advantages:

- it is suitable for Learners operating at low cognitive and linguistic levels;
-   work can begin at the single word utterance level;
-   it can help to develop syntax skills (movement to a two word level);
-   the words learnt may be more readily generalizable to other situations (See Kim, Y. & Lombardino, L. 1991);
- scripts can provide a means by which vocabulary is selected (Iacono, T. & Duncum, J. 1995);
- staff are presented with a limited vocabulary of signs or symbols to learn and thus can develop sign and symbol skills alongside
the Learner;
-   when symbols are used, they can be displayed on a single overlay;
-   symbols and signs can be displayed as a wall chart / poster in the environment in which will be used and are likely to
spontaneously occur aiding the learning of others.
-   because such scripts are used repeatedly in a predictive fashion they can tend to lessen the cognitive load on any individual (See
Constable, C. 1986);

Some of the above are also applicable to sentence-based scripts. Sentence based scripts may have other potential advantages. They may be better suited to developing turn-taking skills rather than syntax for example. There is no hard and fast rule which says that scripts must be either sentence or words based, they could (and probably should) include both. For work on scripting the reader may like to refer to the following books, articles and papers: Constable, C. 1986; Fey, M. 1986; Glennen, S. 1986; Nelson, K. 1986; Kim, Y. & Lombardino, L. 1991; Elder, P. 1992; Speck, J. & McGuinness, R. 1992; Elder, P. & Goossens, C. 1993; Iacono, T. & Duncum, J. 1995

See also:

Baker, B. & Stuart, S. (1986). Communication Mapping for semantic compaction systems. Minspeak Materials Kit, PRC, Wooster Ohio

Constable, C. (1986). The application of scripts in the organization of language intervention contexts, In - Event knowledge: Structure and function in development, pp. 205 - 230, Nelson, K. (Ed.), Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Elder, P. (1992). Script composition and facilitation in goal-orientated activities, 4th Annual European Minspeak Conference Proceedings, Portland Training College, Nottingham, 28th - 29th May, pp. 14 - 22, Swinstead: Liberator Ltd.

Elder, P. & Goossens, C. (1993). Activity-based scripts with adolescents and adults who are moderately / severely developmentally
disabled, 14th Southeast Annual Augmentative Communication Conference Proceedings,  pp. 33 - 45, Birmingham, Alabama: SEAC

Fey, M. (1986). Language intervention with young children. San Diego: College Hill Press

Glennen, S. (1986). Early language training using Minscript concepts. 1st Annual Minspeak Conference Proceedings, Detroit, MI. 19th - 20th November, pp. 19 ‑ 26, PRC

Iacono, T. & Duncum, J. (1995). Comparison of sign alone and in combination with an electronic communication device in early
language intervention: Case study, AAC, Volume 11 (4), December 1995, pp. 249 - 259

Kim, Y. & Lombardino, L. (1991). The efficacy of script contexts in language comprehension intervention with children who have
mental retardation, Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, Volume 34, pp. 845 - 857

Nelson, K. (Ed.)(1986). Event Knowledge: Structure and function in development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Speck, J. & McGuinness, R. (1992). Using scripts to develop communication skills within an interactive activity, 13th Southeast Annual Augmentative Communication Conference Proceedings, pp. 125 - 134, Birmingham, Alabama: SEAC

76. Secondary Switching

There are some simple AAC systems that allow an external switch or switches to control a specific cell or cells on an overlay (For example, the Cardinal system depicted has two switch sockets to control cells 7 and 8, of an eight location overlay, only). It should be noted that secondary switching systems are NOT a scanning system as detailed above but, rather, direct selection systems with additional (secondary) switch access. In such systems ONE switch literally controls ONE cell only and the) activation of the switch is akin to selecting the cell from the overlay with a finger. As simple AAC systems come and go very rapidly, it is probably of no use listing such systems here as they will be no longer available by the time you read this! If you are interested in finding out more, it is advisable to contact your local Assistive Technology Centre who should be able to advise you. Alternatively, you can use the form at the foot of this page to contact Talksense and we will send you a list of those presently in production of which we are aware.

77. Sensory Stories

Sensory stories, Sensory Journeys, multi-sensory stories, multi-sensory sensitive stories, tactile stories, bag books, are all ways of bringing a story to life for Learners who are experiencing cognitive difficulties. They are presented in an inclusive and interactive manner for those who cannot presently read for themselves. They are told with an emphasis on vision and sound and movement, action and interaction (in other words through the Learners 'senses') rather than on text. The staff might use Learners as characters within the story and toys to illustrate any animals for example. Sound effects, symbols, smells etc are all included to give the story meaning at a level that the Learners might understand.

Simple AAC can assist in telling a Sensory Story. Better still, it can be the Learners themselves who are in control of the story through the simple AAC systems, telling the story and producing the sound effects and even the imagery (using a switch to control a projected PowerPoint for example). Simple AAC could help to:

- empower a Learner or Learners to tell (part of) a story;
- provide sound effects within the story line;
- link to projected images and video;
- assess Learners' awareness of the story line.

In my story below, a Learner's name is used (in the example Jane). The story has lots of repeated lines and works with things of which the Learners may have some experience and can easily be provided as tactile objects. Some can make sound effects such as plastic bottles filled with peas. The story can be told, at least in part, using a simple AAC system (see overlay illustrated) and other Learners can produce sound effects or say a particular story line:

Jane lost her special cup.
"Where is it?", said Jane.
She looked in the ... kitchen drawer
but all she found was ... knives and forks
"It's not here", said Jane.
She looked in the ... front room cupboard
but all she found was ... books and magazines
"It's not here", said Jane.
She looked in the ... bathroom cabinet
but all she found was ... plastic bottles
"It's not here", said Jane
She looked in the ... Bedroom wardrobe
but all she found was ... clothes and shoes
"It's not here", said Jane.
She looked in the ... Kitchen Sink
"There's it is!
Mum is going to wash it"

See Also:

Aldrich, F.K. & Sheppard, L. (2001). Tactile graphics in school education: Perspectives from pupils. The British Journal of Visual Impairment, Volume 19, pp. 69 - 73.

Brug, A.T., van der Putten, A., Penne, A.,, Maes, B., & Vlaskamp, C. (2012). Multi-sensory Storytelling for Persons with Profound Intellectual and Multiple Disabilities: An Analysis of the Development, Content and Application in Practice. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, Volume 25 (4), pp. 350 – 359

Edman, P. (1992). Tactile Graphics. AFB Press, New York

Fenwick, M. (2005). Multisensory Sensitive Stories. Eye Contact, Volume 42, pp. 12 - 14

Fuller, C. (1999). Bag Books Tactile Stories. The SLD Experience, Volume 23, pp. 20 - 21.

Grove, N. (2009). Stories for lifelong learning. The SLD Experience, Volume 55, pp. 8 - 9.

Grove, N., Bunning, K., Porter, J., & Olsson, C. (1999). See What I Mean: Interpreting the Meaning of Communication by People with Severe and Profound Intellectual Disabilities, Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, Volume 12 (3), pp. 190 – 203

Henderson, E.A. (2005). Journeys towards communication, PMLD Link, Volume 17 (1), pp. 19 - 21

Kennedy, J.M. (2000). Recognising outline pictures via touch: Alignment theory. In Touch, Representation and Blindness, (ed. M.A Heller). Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Lehrer, S.(2008). Inexpensive Sensory Ideas for the Special Education Classroom. Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools, & Early Intervention, Volume 1 (3-4), pp. 238 - 245

Longhorn, F. (1988). A sensory curriculum for very special people. London: Souvenir Press.

Marek, B. (2004). Making sense of tactile graphics. Visability, Volume 41, pp.13 - 16

Penne, A., Brug, A.T., Munde, V., van der Putten, A., Vlaskamp, C., & Maes, B. (2012). Staff interactive style during multi-sensory storytelling with persons with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, Volume 56 (2), pp. 167 – 178

Ripley, M. & Sommerich, S. (1998). Guidelines for making tactile books for young children. Clearvision, London.

Shamir, A., Korat, O., & Shlafer, I. (2011). The effect of activity with e-book on vocabulary and story comprehension: a comparison between kindergarteners at risk of learning disabilities and typically developing kindergarteners, European Journal of Special Needs Education, Volume 26 (3), pp. 311 - 322

Taylor, J. (2006) Using Multi-Sensory Stories to Develop Literacy Skills and to Teach Sensitive Topics, PMLD Link, Volume 18 (3), Issue 55, pp. 14 - 16

Ten Brug, A., van der Putten, A. & Vlaskamp, C. (2010). Quality and effectiveness of multi-sensory storytelling. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, Volume 23, pp. 498

Wai-chi Chana, S., Thompson, D.R., Chaua, J.P.C., Tam, W.S. Chiua, I.W., & Loa, S.H. (2010). The effects of multi-sensory therapy on behaviour of adult clients with developmental disabilities—A systematic review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, Volume 47 (1), January 2010, pp. 108–122

Watson, M. (2002) Developing Literacy Skills through Multi-Sensory Story-Telling in Children and Young Adults with Profound and Multiple Learning Disabilities – Final Report. PAMIS, University of Dundee.

Young, H., Fenwick, M., Lambe, L. & Hogg, J. (2011). Multi‐sensory storytelling as an aid to assisting people with profound intellectual disabilities to cope with sensitive issues: a multiple research methods analysis of engagement and outcomes. European Journal of Special Needs Education, Volume 26 (2), pp. 127 - 142

Young, H. & Lambe, L. (2011). Multi-Sensory Storytelling: For People with Profound and Multiple Learning Disabilities, PMLD Link, Volume 23, (1), Issue 68, pp. 29 - 31

Young, H.B., Lambe, L., Fenwick, M. & Hogg, J. (2011). Multi-sensory storytelling as an aid to assisting people with profound intellectual disabilities to cope with sensitive issues: a multiple research methods analysis of engagement and outcomes. European Journal of Special
Needs Education. To be published.

78. Sensory Surfaces for Simple AAC

While AAC tends to function using text and or symbol in the main as a means to represent the stored vocabulary there may be times when a sensory surface is required: for example, with a Learner who has difficulties with visual acuity and cannot see symbols. So what do you do about those Learners who have problems with visual acuity and cannot see the symbols? As yet, Sensory Simple AAC surfaces are not readily commercially available. However, it is not outside the bounds of possibility to create your own.

For simple AAC items such as BIGmacks and steps, extra transparent plastic caps can be purchased from your AbleNet vendor, Do not modify the AbleNet screw on interchangeable tops but, rather, the clear plastic snap on caps as this is both easier to do and significantly less expensive. As the caps are clear it is possible to trace out designs through them which makes for some interesting possibilities as described below.

Simple Sensory Surface Caps can be constructed using some spray glue, a piece of circular card cut to fit the shape of the switch cap, and some materials that can be attached with the glue to the top of the cap.

- Take the card and create a template by piercing and cutting a circular hole
approximately 15 mm in form the outer edge;.
- Place the card template on top of the switch cap on top of some old
newspaper;
- Using the spray mount glue, spray a film of glue onto the switch cap
through the template;
- This will create a circular film of glue on the surface of the switch cap;
- Now attach a substance to the glue. For example, you could sprinkle dry
sand over the surface or polystyrene beads;
- Allow to dry and shake off the excess.

You now have created a Sensory Surface Cap. It is better practice to have sets of caps for individual Learners rather than share then amongst a group.

Having created a sandy Sensory Surface Cap, we now must associate it with a POLE (Person, Object, Location, Event) by using it only in conjunction with that particular activity. For example, the sandy cap could be used every time the Learner is engaged in something to do with music. There is no connection between music and sand (apart from the musical - the Sand of Music!)(Sorry!); we make the connection by using it consistently every time the POLE features music. To this end, Sensory Surface Caps must be made for switch use as well and, therefore, if we are using BIGmacks and Jelly Beans, two sizes of switch caps need to be adapted.

Once adapted, stick a label on the inside/underside of the cap, which won't be seen during use, that will serve to identify its POLE link (music) and the owner of the cap (so it can be returned to rightful Learner should it be misplaced).

Do not be tempted to create thousands of such caps: start simply with just a few. Below are some ideas for the POLE and the surface:

POLE SUBSTANCE
Music Sand, raised musical note
Greeting Felt circle (the looped side of Velcro is also good)
Water/bubbles Sponge (could even be made to be slightly damp) (use a blue BIGmack?)
Toy (animal) Fur
Toy (vehicle) Wheel
Light source ??? (use a yellow BIGmack?)
Vibration stick-on feet (Maplins sell such things) to create domed bumpy surface

Here are some possible other everyday and inexpensive substances that could be attached to represent other POLEs: coins, rice, fishnet, half table tennis ball, matchsticks (spent), key, paper-clips chain, polystyrene beads, string, tin foil, washers, dried peas, sections of plastic straws, plastic scouring pads. Some of these will require stronger glue. Where the substance may require washing it can be attached by Velcro so that it may be removed. Where objects of reference are being used, it is important to liaise with the staff concerned with the management of the scheme such that conflicts are not created.

What about sensory surfaces on other simple AAC systems such as the Go-Talks? Because of the method that Go Talk and some other AAC systems are attached it is not always easy to create sensory surfaces and then slide in the overlay. However, in this instance it is possible to create a new magnetic overlay from magnetic paper. Magnetic paper is available from a number of high street outlets (Google Magnetic Paper to find a local source).

- An individual sheet can be cut to the correct size and then slid into the device.
- Draw through the template holes to mark this sheet and remove.
- Cut out the marked areas to give you a number of small magnetic surfaces
that will fit into the template at just the right size.
- A second individual sheet is also cut to the correct size using the original
Go Talk overlay.
- Slide this sheet into the Go Talk.
- One magnetic sheet will adhere to the other!
- Attach sensory surfaces to the smaller magnetic pieces created.
- When the glue is dry the surfaces can be attached to the Go Talk.

What about sensory surfaces for simple AAC on the iPad?

Is it possible to create sensory surface of an iPad? Sure it is! It takes a little skill and time and patience and a dust free area! It is possible to buy from many retail outlets surface protectors for your iPad (Google 'iPad screen protectors'). These are adhesive transparent plastic sheets that can be attached to (and removed from) the surface of an iPad but do not affect its sensitivity or response. It takes a little skill to apply the sheets correctly otherwise it traps dusts or gets creased or bubbly. I have found that the following tips work very well:
- Ensure you work in a clean and dust free area. (Paramount)
- Take no notice of the instructions given and do not use the duster provided to clean the screen (it leaves lint behind).
Instead, use one of those little lens cleaning wet wipe sachets to wipe the screen down and then allowed the screen to dry.
- Ensure you punch out the 2 holes (camera and start button) before you apply.
- Make sure you line up the protector correctly. I recommend placing the protector dry (with covers still fixed) on the I-Pad
so as to be able to gauge how to do it for real.
- Peel off bottom layer and affix to screen. (Don't worry too much about any bubbles yet)
- With the top layer still on. Get a credit card, cover it with a soft cloth (such as a duster) and use it as a squeegee
with which to push any air bubbles to the sides.(It works)
- Remove top layer.
Once this layer has been applied, you can now affix surfaces to the protective layer as detailed above. When the surfaces are no longer required you can then peel off the protective layer, clean, and the iPad is as good as new!

Creating raised surface sensory symbols

To create a raised surface and actually draw a symbol, hot glue is a relatively easy way method. If the surface is clear, a design can be placed underneath and then traced with the hot glue gun leaving a raised surface line that adheres to the clear surface and can be felt by the Learner in interactions with the simple AAC system. If the surface does not allow direct tracing then indirect tracing is an option. Working with hot glue can be a little tricky and it is advisable to practice before attempting the real thing to ensure a good result!

If you don't want to use hot glue then silicon sealer comes in tubes that can be placed into a dispenser (available from DIY stores) that will set to provide a continuous raised line on the surface.

If desirable, you can combine some of the above ideas, infilling the area enclosed raised line with a sensory surface. For example, one could create a simple musical note shape outline and fill the inner surface with sand.

Raised lines need to be as distinct from other patterns used as possible to raise the potential of Learner cognisance. Again, do not be tempted to create hundreds of such items: start simply and consult as may others as possible on your ideas for designs for links to POLE items.

See Also:

Aldrich, F.K. & Sheppard, L. (2001). Tactile graphics in school education: Perspectives from pupils. The British Journal of Visual Impairment, Volume 19, pp. 69 - 73.

Edman, P. (1992). Tactile Graphics. AFB Press, New York

Kennedy, J.M. (2000). Recognising outline pictures via touch: Alignment theory. In Touch, Representation and Blindness, (ed. M.A Heller). Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Marek, B. (2004). Making sense of tactile graphics. Visability, Volume 41, pp.13 - 16

Ripley, M. & Sommerich, S. (1998). Guidelines for making tactile books for young children. Clearvision, London.

79. Sign of the Times

It is possible to use a simple AAC system to teach sign language! You may think that is crazy but, as technology is changing rapidly, new developments come into existence which make new ideas possible. Some new simple AAC apps for the iPad (and also for the alternatives that are arriving) can allow cells to link to videos such that, activating a cell on an overlay plays a video. As the iPad 2 (and beyond) is also a video camera, it is possible to take a video of a staff member (or perhaps, better still, the Learner) signing a particular word and then link to that image from a cell on the overlay! Thus, the Learner could take his/her iPad simple AAC system home and start to teach his/her parents the signs for particular words which they might find extremely useful. A multi-cell overlay could link to several signs: indeed, there could be a whole series of overlays that build signing skills in a logical fashion that would benefit not only the Learner but all Significant Others.

The ability to link to video clips also holds other exciting possibilities, some of which are detailed later on this web page in the video section of the 101 ideas.

80. Sing for your Supper

We have already seen that simple AAC can be used as a form of iPod music player juke box with each cell linking to an .mp3 or .wav track. As children are motivated by such music, it can be an effective BEST POLE to create an interest and use of the simple AAC system. It doesn't need to be music from the charts of course, it can be any sort of music that the Learner finds interesting: from nursery rhymes to advertising jingles to TV theme tunes and beyond. If it is motivating then it is useful.

We may begin with an overlay full of music for a reluctant communicator in the beginning or, alternatively, an overlay with only one cell that is active and contains music. Once the Learner begins to access this readily, s/he has demonstrated an understanding that activating the device (cause) produces a favoured song (effect) and an ability to take control of the process. We now need to step it up a 'tad' (just a little). Hopefully, the music is activated by a cell containing a symbol which is in some way representative of the music or the artiste or the concept of music (for example, a musical instrument). If we use the swap facility to move the cell to another location on the overlay and, at the same time, add a second (distinct) symbol (as a distractor) which might say something such as "I like music" or "I want to listen to some music", does the Learner discriminate between the symbols and select the music symbol to continue to play the favoured piece? It's OK if the Learner experiments with the other symbol and discovers what it does: that's exactly the behaviour we want! However, we also want to see (hear?) that the Learner is not completely confused and can still access the music.

After we are confident that the Learner is coping with the single distractor we can add another! However, we do not just want an overlay full of distractors that serve no other use, we should start to add requests for other BEST POLE items (preferably ones that are easy to supply in quantity without negative effect on the Learner). Thus, just by exploring an overlay, the Learner can start to comprehend that specific symbols relate to specific events and that s/he has control over when these events happen. Furthermore, s/he can elect to sing whenever s/he is motivated.

Of course, if a Learner is motivated to sing, s/he might be motivated to sing in the middle of a history session! While that might be amusing to the other participants, it may be not so amusing to the teacher and the support team especially after the fifth time! It is important staff understand that while it may be tempting to simply remove the device or erase the music from the cell or some other such strategy, it would be bad practice to do so! If any other child (who has no problems with speech) were to begin singing in the middle of class would the staff operate and remove the child's vocal chords? Tape up the child's mouth? Provide electro-therapy to the music centre of the child's brain such that the song was erased? No, of course not! They would address the behaviour. They would explain to the child that there was a time and place for singing and this was not that time. If the child continued to sing, they would probably recourse to some form or threatened punitive measure and or removal from the class. Why should our singer be any different? He or She should not. It is discrimination and abuse to remove the system!

Hey hold on! If a child started playing his iPod in class, I would remove it until the end of session. What is the difference?
I assume that the :
- iPod is not a sanctioned piece of equipment in class;
- child is not disadvantaged by the removal of the iPod such that he cannot speak or interact effectively;
- child has the cognizance to understand the rules by which such sessions are governed through previous experience;
- child will learn not to use that device in class again.
I hope you can see where I am going with this. It is different and it is important that we treat it as such.

81. Size and Shape

Simple AAC could be used to help a Learner to work with both size and shape, discriminating between large/big and little/small and attaching a particular shape name. Overlays can be created to allow the Learner to identify a shape: "That is the big circle" or ask for a shape: "Can I have the small square". If we were to add a few other words the Learner might be composing such sentences as:

Big square;
Red circle;
Small blue square;
That is a small square;
That is not a red circle;
Can I have the big red circle please;
That is a small yellow square;
That is not a big blue circle;

All of the above could easily be programmed into a 12 location overlay. See illustrations below.

Of course, you can start very simply with just a two location overlay which might either:

- discriminate between two specific shapes (for example Circle or Square);
- state whether a shape is a specific form or not (for example programming 'not' and 'Circle'). Thus, the Learner would be shown a
set of shapes and asked to say whether the shape was either 'circle' or 'not circle'

The overlays below depict just three of the possible thousands of variations on the theme of colour, size, and shape.

82. Social Stories, Articles, and Simple AAC

Carol Gray, former consultant to students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), first defined Social Stories™ in 1991. Gray defines a social story as describing:

"a situation, skill, or concept in terms of relevant social cues, perspectives, and common responses in a specifically defined style and format. The goal of a Social Story is to share accurate social information in a patient and reassuring manner that is easily understood by its audience. Half of all Social Stories developed should affirm something that an individual does well. Although the goal of a Story should never be to change the individual’s behavior, that individual’s improved understanding of events and expectations may lead to more effective responses." (http://www.thegraycenter.org 2012)

An example of a Social Story from the Gray Center website is:

"My name is Tommy. I am an intelligent second grader at Cottonwood Elementary School. Sometimes, I have to use the bathroom. This is okay.

Bathrooms need to have a toilet or urinal, and maybe sinks. Sometimes, when people need to find a place to keep something until they need it, they might place it in the bathroom. My teacher keeps her overhead projector in the bathroom when she is not using it to make more room in the classroom. It's okay to store an overhead projector in the bathroom, but usually most bathrooms do not have overhead projectors in them.

Sometimes, my teacher uses the overhead projector to teach the children. If she were to bring all the children into the bathroom where the overhead projector is, it would be too crowded! So my teacher brings the overhead projector into the classroom to use it.

It's okay to use our bathroom with the overhead projector in it. It's also very okay and intelligent to use our bathroom when my teacher is using the overhead projector with the class.

The custodians work very hard to keep our bathrooms clean. They use disinfectant to keep everything nice for the children. If the custodians notice bugs, like spiders, they might use bug spray. Bug spray, and other things that custodians have, are used to keep bathrooms free of spiders and things. People never use overhead projectors to keep an area free of spiders; it just would not work. If I should ever see a bug in the bathroom, it's okay to tell an adult. The adult may know how to use a tissue or toilet paper to get rid of the bug, or we may choose to use another bathroom."

As can be seen, a social story is about a real life event for a real life person. The person does not have to be autistic to benefit. A Social Story seeks to explain to the person (Learner) something about a real event in a way that they can comprehend. It has a positive focus and it is hoped that a Learner's understanding of the story will result in the Learner being better able to deal with the real life event in the future.

There are seven types of sentence that may be used in a Social Story:

Descriptive sentences: are truthful and observable sentences (opinion- and assumption-free) that identify the most relevant factors in
a social situation. They often answer "wh" questions.
Perspective sentences: refer to or describe the internal state of other people (their knowledge/thoughts, feelings, beliefs, opinions,
motivation or physical condition) so that the individual can learn how others' perceive various events.
Directive sentences: presents or suggests, in positive terms, a response or choice of responses to a situation or concept.
Affirmative sentences: enhances the meaning of statements and may express a commonly shared value or opinion. They can also
stress the important points, refer to a law or rule to reassure the learner.
Control sentences: identifies personal strategies the individual will use to recall and apply information. They are written by the
individual after reviewing the Social Story.
Cooperative sentences: describe what others will do to assist the individual. This helps to ensure consistent responses by a variety
of people.
Partial sentences: encourages the individual to make guesses regarding the next step in a situation, the response of another
individual, or his/her own response. Any of the above sentences can be written as a partial sentence with a
portion of the sentence being a blank space to complete.

Can we use simple AAC for Social Stories? Sure a Social Story could be illustrated and stored into a simple AAC system such that an individual Learner could read the story by him/herself to him or herself or to a group of other Learners for whom the story may be relevant. The illustrated overlay below conveys a Simple AAC Social Story in just nine cells. If you have a stepping SSS available, a simple AAC Social Story can also easily be entered even on a Single Surface System. A whole library of Social Stories can be prepared over time in this way and saved for future use.

See also:

Brownell, M. (2002). Musically adapted Social Stories to modify behaviors in students with autism: four case studies. Journal of Music Therapy, Volume 39 (2): pp. 117 – 144.

Chatwin, I. (2007). 'Why do you do that? Stories to support social understanding for people with ASD' in B. Carpenter & J. Egerton (eds) New Horizons in Special Education. Stourbridge: Sunfield

Crozier, S., & Tincani, M. (2007). Effects of Social Stories on pro-social behavior of preschool children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Volume 37 (9): pp. 1803–14.

Delano, M., & Snell, M.E. (2006). The Effects of Social Stories on the Social Engagement of Children with Autism, Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, Volume 8 (1), pp. 29-42

Edelson, M.G. (1995). Social Stories, http://web.archive.org/web/20080212154516/http://www.autism.org/stories.html

Gray, C., & Garand, J.D. (1993). "Social Stories: improving responses of students with autism with accurate social information". Focus on Autistic Behavior, Volume 8 (1): pp. 1 – 10.

Gray, C. (2000). The New Social Story Book. Arlington, TX: Future Horizons

Gray, C. (2003). Social Stories, Arlington, TX: Future Horizons

Gray, C. (2012). The Last Bedtime Story (That we read each night), Rocking Horse Stories

Gray, C., & White, A.L. (2001), My Social Stories Book, Jessica Kingsley Publishers

Grandin, T. (1996). Thinking in Pictures. New York: Vintage Books, Random House.

Haggerty, N., Black, R. & Smith, G. (2005). "Increasing self-managed coping skills through Social Stories and apron storytelling". Teaching Exceptional Children, Volume 37 (4): pp. 40–47.

Hagiwara, T. & Smith, J. (1999). A Multimedia Social Story Intervention: Teaching Skills to Children with Autism, Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, Volume 14 (2), pp. 82 - 95

Karkhaneh, M., Clark, B., Ospina, M.B., Seida, J.C., Smith, V., & Hartling, L. (2010). Social Stories to improve social skills in children with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review. Autism : The International Journal of Research and Practice, Volume 14 (6), pp. 641 - 662

Klett, L., & Turan, Y. (2011). Generalized Effects of Social Stories with Task Analysis for Teaching Menstrual Care to Three Young Girls with Autism, Sexuality and Disability, December 2011, pp. 1 - 18

Kokina, A., & Kern, L. (2010). Social Story™ Interventions for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Meta-Analysis, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Volume 40 (7), pp. 812-826

Lorimer, P.A., Simpson, R.L., Myles, B.S., & Ganz, J.B. (2002). The Use of Social Stories as a Preventative Behavioral Intervention in a Home Setting with a Child with Autism, Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, Volume 4 (1). pp. 53 - 60

Nichols, S.L., Hupp, S.D.A., Jewell, J.D., & Zeigler, C.S. (2005). "Review of Social Story interventions for children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders". Journal for Evidence-Based Practices for Schools, Volume 6 (1): pp. 90–120.

Reichow, B., & Volkmar, F.R. (2010). Social Skills Interventions for Individuals with Autism: Evaluation for Evidence-Based Practices within a Best Evidence Synthesis Framework, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Volume 40 (2), pp. 149 – 166

Reynhout, G., & Carter, M. (2006). Social Stories for children with disabilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Volume 36 (4), pp. 445 - 469

Reynhout, G., & Carter, M. (2007). Social Story efficacy for a child with autism spectrum disorder and moderate intellectual disability, Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, Volume 22 (3): pp. 173 – 82

Reynhout, G., & Carter, M. (2011), Social Stories: a possible theoretical rationale. Journal: European Journal of Special Needs Education, Volume 26 (3), August, pp. 367-378

Rust, J., & Smith, A. (2006). How should the effectiveness of Social Stories to modify the behaviour of children on the autistic spectrum be tested? Lessons from the literature., Autism : The International Journal of Research and Practice, Volume 10 (2), pp. 125 - 138

Sansosti F.J., Powell-Smith K.A., & Kincaid, D. (2004). A research synthesis of social story interventions for children with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities,; Volume 19 (4): pp. 194-204.

Sansosti, F.J.,& Powell-Smith, K.A. (2006). Using Social Stories to Improve the Social Behavior of Children With Asperger Syndrome, Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, Volume 8 (1), pp. 43 - 57

Sansosti, F.J., & Powell-Smith, K.A. (2008). Using computer-presented social stories and video models to increase the social communication skills of children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders, Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, Volume 10 (3), pp. 162 - 178

Scattone, D, Wilczynski, S.M., Edwards, R.P., & Rabian, B. (2002). Decreasing disruptive behaviors of children with autism using Social Stories. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Volume 32 (6): pp. 535 – 43

Schneider, N., & Goldstein, H. (2010). Using Social Stories and Visual Schedules to Improve Socially Appropriate Behaviors in Children With Autism, Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, Volume 12 (3), pp. 149 - 160

Swaggart, B.L., Gagnon, E., Bock, S.J., Earles, T.L., Quinn, C., Myles, B.S., & Simpson, R.L. (1995). Using Social Stories to Teach Social and Behavioral Skills to Children with Autism, Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, Volume 10 (1), pp.

Test,D.W., Richter, S., Knight, V., & Spooner, F. (2011), A Comprehensive Review and Meta-Analysis of the Social Stories Literature, Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, Volume 26 (1) pp. 49 - 62

83. Social Symbolism

While social communication is frequently used ('Hello', 'goodbye', ...) its meaning may also be a little abstract to some Learners.To what does the word 'hello' refer? It's not a thing and its not something you can do. It's not a colour or a descriptive word, it's just something we say when we first meet people. However, it does not follow that we should not provide access to such words from simple AAC systems. As such vocabulary is frequently used, it provides many opportunities for Learners to use their AAC system and, better still, it can act as a conversation opener or initiator prompting others to stop and interact with them.

It is common to see an SSS system such as a BIGmack being programmed with 'Good Morning' and then passed around the room such that every class member can activate it and say 'good morning' to everyone in the class, staff and pupils alike.

I have some 'issues' with this approach:

1. It is another opportunity for fly-swatting (see section on fly-swatting);
2. There is no guarantee of cognitive engagement;
3. It is often done without any symbol support (See section on Symbol Support);
4. It is typically performed as 'move down the line' activity where most of the Learners are spending their time waiting
(see section on waiting later on this page).
5. All staff present may not be able to explain the reasons why this activity is taking pace in this way (see 'and you are doing
this because' earlier on this web page.)

While this activity is not 'bad practice', depending on how it is done, it might not be considered 'good practice'!

Some Learners may find dealing with social interactions very difficult and prefer to work on their own in isolation. One technique to assist such Learners to find reward in interacting with others is to use a simple AAC system.The development of social interaction skills in this way is, at least, a three stage process:

STAGE ONE:      Cause and Effect
                          Use an SSS as a switch to provide the BEST. Let us assume that a Learner likes a particular form of music. The
SSS can either provide that music directly (record it into the SSS) or by acting as a switch that operates a CD, radio,
or cassette. When the Learner shows that s/he understands that s/he is in control of the music through the SSS,
                          then we can move to stage two ...

STAGE TWO:     Call Significant Other and tell them what to do.
                          At Stage Two, the SSS is programmed in a new way: Instead of playing the music directly, it calls for a staff member
                          and directs them to play the music. "Miss Jenkins, turn on my music". Miss Jenkins would then come over to assist
the Learner and say something simple like, "Music? Sure" and turn on the music for the Learner and then leave. Once
established, it is time to move to Stage Three...

STAGE THREE:  Call Significant Other
                          At stage three, the call is made to the Significant Other alone. That is the Learner now uses a simple AAC system to
say, "Miss Jenkins". On arrival, the Significant Other initiates conversation with the Learner to ask what s/he wants.
Miss Jenkins could make the process easy to start by offering an alternative: "Hi <name>, would you like some music
or do you want to go for a walk?" and show the Learner how to say these things on the simple AAC system. Eventually,
the Learner would e expected to tell the staff member directly what was required.

As you can see, Stage One began with the Learner having no interaction with another. However by stage Three, the Learner was not only having to call over a member of staff but also interact with that staff member to achieve a desired end. Some Learners find social interaction very difficult. A staged approach to developing this skill can help them learn to begin to cope with such social skills.

A further idea is to program (for example) a nine location overlay with one cell to say 'Good Morning' and the other eight cells with the names of members of the Learner's peer group or family such that s/he can greet them individually.

See also:

King, J., Spoeneman,T., Stuart, S. & Beukelman, D. (1995). Small talk in adult conversations: Implications for AAC vocabulary selection, AAC, Volume 11 (4) , pp. 260 - 264

84. Sound Ideas

Cause and effect and sound can be linked together to create some magical educational moments for kids and adults alike. No one ever said that learning should not be fun and the ideas below all have great educational objectives but are really motivating and memorable. I am sure there are hundreds more such ideas so, if you would like to share yours, contact Talksense using the form at the bottom of the page and we'll add it to this page and credit you and your school as well!

The idea is to link electronic equipment (battery or mains) to a simple AAC system such that in can be used in what may be an unusual but creative way. Not all simple AAC systems can link to external devices in this way but several are able (for example the BIGmack and the Doo-zy). To link such a system to a mains powered item requires a special interface. A number of companies market such items (for example: Powerlink and Pretorian). These keep the Learner remote from the equipment and also completely safe from mains voltage. Even if your simple AAC system cannot control external devices, a separate switch may be used and the simple AAC system set up to make comments or give instructions to Significant Others. Every opportunity to get the Learner to communicate and to be in control should be utilised.

In the image right a simple AAC SSS device has been connected to a fan (via a Powerlink or some other mains adapter system). Out of shot, another SS device has been connected to a switch adapted bubble blower. One Learner can blow bubbles and another can fan them across the room! Both SSS devices can be singing 'I'm forever blowing bubbles' at the same time!

What is the purpose of this?

- Cause and effect skill building;
- Practical skills (make your own bubble liquid. What is best?)
- Spatial awareness (direction of fan);
- Maths (Circles and spheres);
- Maths (distance travelled by bubbles as fan speed is adjusted)
- Maths (angles of fan and effect on bubbles);
- Maths (3 dimensional angle of fan and effect on bubbles);
- Science (What is a bubble?);
- Physical skills (catching and bursting bubbles);
- Fun!

Warning: Bubbles tend to make the floor surface very slippery. Old newspaper can protect the surface and when removed the floor is safe for walking.

It's traditional for the birthday boy or girl to blow out the candles on the birthday cake. However, if you happen to have a disability that prevents you from performing this function, you always have to rely on a Significant Other to do it on your behalf. However, with a simple AAC system connected to an external fan (via a Powerlink or some other mains adapter system such as the one from Pretorian), the Learner can now blow out his own candles! Not only that but the simple AAC system could sing 'Happy Birthday' or some other appropriate song for the occasion.

Note to Significant Others: Be sure to test the fan's strength beforehand - sufficient to blow out the candles but not so strong as to blow the icing all over the room!

Note: The BIGmack and some other SSS systems can be operated by an external switch such that the Learner can use his/her own switch to perform this function.

In the image right, a switch has been attached to a leaf blower such that, when the switch is activated, the leaf blower blows the ball towards the skittles to knock them over. Thus the Learner who could not physically manage to 'bowl' can switch-bowl instead!

In order to achieve this, the leaf blower must be mounted sturdily and then plugged into a main switch interface such as the Power-Link from AbleNet or from Pretorian. Such interfaces allow mains operated electrical items to be operate with complete safety from a switch. The switch can then be connected to the interface either by a wire or wirelessly. The image left does not show the interface.

The ball would be placed in front of the leaf-blower between tracks made from two poles of wood. The wood would be constructed in such a way that it could be angled to direct the ball. The control of this angle would be decided by the Learner with simple AAC commands to the staff. When the Learner believes that the wood track for the ball will direct it to knock over most skittles/pins then the Learner can activate the switch to turn on the blower and send the ball towards the skittles.

A plastic sheet could be marked out with a semi-circle in 10 degree intervals. This could be placed on the floor under the wooden poles to allow the Learner to dictate a specific angle again using simple AAC.

In the image left, an old vacuum cleaner (you can just see the end of the tubing) has been adapted such that the air output is channelled through the hose. The metal tubing section has been mounted so that it can be adjusted in two planes as directed by a Learner. The Vacuum is connected via a main switch interface such as the Power-Link from AbleNet or from Pretorian to the Learner's simple AAC system so that s/he is able to turn on the air flow at will.

The metal vacuum tube is loaded with a ping pong (table tennis) ball such that when the air flows the ball is fired across the room!
Arranged on a table top some suitable distance away from the the vacuum system is a set of targets: cut outs of ducks etc as you might find on a rifle range at the local fair. The object of the exercise is for the Learner to shoot over the ducks (etc) with the ping pong ball. It's not only great fun but has sound education objectives too (see the listing above in blowing bubbles, for example).

The Learner has to use his simple AAC system to direct the 'rifle angle in three dimensions (up, down right, left) by so many degrees before hitting the firing switch. Soft table tennis balls are cheap and safe. The ducks can be made out of card in art and hinged to the shelf with some sticky tape such that they will stand upright but can be knocked over. Old tin cans make a great noise when hit and can add to the fun! The Learner with the highest knock down is the winner!

In the previous two examples, the leaf blower and the vacuum cleaner can be noisy and may startle some Learners. Thus, Learners should be prepared for the sudden noise in advance perhaps by watching the event outside from a distance and gradually being taken closer to the action. Most kids will want to be in the middle of it - and, I think, most adults too!

85. Sound Reasons

The simple AAC overlay depicted below has been set up so that each cell generates a different animal sound effect. The cells are linked to .mp3 recordings that can easily be obtained from the internet. All manner of sound effects can be linked in this way:
- animal sounds;
- everyday sounds (doors creaking, phones ringing, toilets flushing, ...);
- sounds of nature;
- people sounds (laughing, crying, applauding, screaming, coughing, sneezing, ...);
- traffic sounds;
- Drum beat;
- Music notes or chords (so Learner could play a simple tune).

A learner can use such sounds:
- in school productions: s/he can be the sound specialist!
- for joke effect;
- to illustrate a poem, nursery rhyme, story, or conversation;
- to keep a beat;
- to play a simple tune;
- for motivation.

In special education classrooms, sensory stories are commonplace (see section on Sensory Stories earlier on this web page). Now the staff can call on Learners to provide some of the special effects.

Whenever you see a free sound effect anywhere always download it and store it for future use, you never know when it will come in handy!

86. Speak Now or forever hold your peace ...

The majority of simple AAC systems permit recorded messages. This means that a message can be recorded then and there on the spot in any dialect or any language. Furthermore, some modern simple AAC system s provide a cash of symbols which can be added to the screen in seconds to create a 'just in time' message for a Learner to use. Whether out shopping or in the park or on a day trip, a Learner can be empowered to communicate by adding a particular sentence such that an opportunity is not lost because of the lack of a suitable previously programmed phrase.

In the cartoon (left), our young lady Learner just decides one day to try a new drink in the coffee shop that they visit after shopping. However, her choice of drink is not stored in her system. The staff are able to store the required request instantly and empower her to go and ask for her new favourite!

Once Significant Others are familiar with the working of a Learner's simple AAC system they can create temporary solutions on the spot. While this has long been possible with such devices as the BIGmack, the technique was often let down slightly by the lack of a suitable symbol for the surface and so the Learner communicated with a 'naked' system. While this is not bad practice neither is it best practice.

It should be noted that most simple AAC systems do not have the amplification to be able to cope in noisy environments. It is therefore good to think ahead and provide an external amplifier/speaker. Luckily small external battery powered speakers can be purchased quite inexpensively and they will fit into a pocket. Try at your local electrical hardware store or look on line.

87. Stimulus Equivalence

What is Stimulus Equivalence? It can be summed up in a pretty basic mathematical formula:

If A=B and B=C then A=C.

About one hundred years ago, John Dewey noted that a learner, having been informed that all men are mortal and that Socrates was a man, should be able to derive, without additional instruction, that Socrates is mortal. Dewey's syllogism captures the essence of stimulus equivalence, the 'conceptualisation' of a relationship that has NOT been explicitly taught from other relationships that have been previously learned through tuition and experience.

Stimulus equivalence therefore is about discovering relationships between things when those relationships have not been specifically taught. An example will hopefully make things clearer. Take a Learner, let's assume he is a boy called Sam. Sam can already say the names of many concrete symbols when they are presented. He has photographs on his simple AAC system and can say the names of the items in this manner. Let us call this relationship between the spoken word (A) and the word's symbol (B). Then, it follows that, for our Learner Sam, A = B (spoken word = symbol). We then teach Sam to match the symbols he knows with written words. So we might show Sam the symbol for a dog with the word 'dog' written clearly as a label. We then cut off the written word from the symbol and get Sam to put them back together. We mix them up and Sam puts them back together correctly. Now, we are pretty sure that, Sam has understood another relationship between the symbol (B) and the written word (C). It follows that, for our Learner Sam, B = C (Symbol = Written Word). Now, if Sam has Stimulus Equivalence then, A should equal C. In other words, without actually teaching Sam to do it, we should be able to hold up the written words (C) and Sam should be able to name them (A) and therefore A = C!

It may be that much of our creative thinking about the world around us come, at least in part, from some form of stimulus equivalence. In terms of language there is little if any relationship between a superordinate class word (for example 'dog'), and subordinate class member (for example 'corgi'), its referent (an actual dog), and the symbol for a dog (the symbol may look nothing like the dog that the Learner has at home for example). While we might believe that there is a relationship between the sound 'dog' and the thing (a dog), it is only a convention that we learn as a child. If we were born in France (for example) that 'relationship' would not exist and would have been replaced by 'chien' equalling the thing that we call a dog. As Juliet says in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, "What's in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet."

"A linguistic sign is not a link between a thing and a name, but between a concept and a sound pattern. The sound pattern is not actually a sound; for a sound is something physical. A sound pattern is the hearer’s psychological impression of a sound, as given to him by evidence of his senses. This sound pattern may be called a ‘material’ element only in that it is the representation of our sensory impressions. The sound pattern may thus be distinguished from the other element associated with it in a linguistic sign. This other element is generally of a more abstract kind: the concept" (DE SAUSSURE F. 1916 pp 98)

"Words Wittgenstein now insisted, cannot be understood outside the context of the non-linguistic human activities into which the use of the language is interwoven .... the way to understand the meaning of a word is to study it in the language-game to which it belongs, to see how it contributes to the communal activity of a group of language-users. In general, the meaning of a word is not an object for which it stands, but rather its use in a language." (KENNY A. 1973 page 14)

"It’s only for a small minority of words that we can give definitions without these fuzzy edges. Until recently, the metre was officially defined as the distance between two particular scratches on a particular metal bar kept in a particular vault in Paris, and, if you wanted to know if your metre stick was a metre long or not, all you had to do was to take it to Paris and lay it alongside that bar. This works pretty well for metre, but it wouldn't work for most other words: we could hardly keep a standard dog in a vault to compare against candidate dogs, or a standard chair, or a standard smile." (TRASK R. 1995 Page 50)

This is also true of the signs used by the deaf community: there may be some signs that are iconic and are either transparent or translucent but the majority are simply opaque:

"although sometimes signs partly depict what they refer to, hardly ever are the forms of signs completely determined by what they mean. So ASL vocabulary has to be learned just like that of a spoken language" (JACKENDOFF R. 1993 page 89)

For ASL read BSL or any other sign language and add in to the mix all the current symbol sets that exist. It is thus that the development of stimulus equivalence in Learners is of great importance for their understanding of the world in general and for Alternative and Augmentative Communication in particular. For we expect Learners to make links between real life things (not just concrete things such as a 'cup' but abstract things such as the verb 'want' or the adjective 'nice'), symbols, text and words (in a particular language). It may well be that we are expecting Learners to make connections between things when in fact they are not and may be cannot. I am reminded of a time when I observed a very good class teacher with a class of around ten young adults learning AAC. The teacher was making toast as a part of the session and was busy doing something else and forgot about the bread toasting. Soon there was a smell of burning bread! The teacher turned off the heat and then turned to the class (in a flash of inspiration) and said, "What is the colour of burnt toast?" There was not a single reply. Not a single person knew! It wasn't that they hadn't access to the vocabulary or were reluctant talkers; they simply had no experience of such matters. Why? Because, others made their toast and, if it got burnt it was thrown away and never reached their eyesight (or their cognition). We have such a wealth of these experiences that we take them from granted: we know milk comes from a cow and chips from potatoes, I have met many Learners who do not. Indeed, I used to teach a young man who thought that the idea of milk coming from a cow was absurd! He refused to believe it. he said it came from a bottle and the bottle came from a milkman (it was some years ago when milk men and woman were commonplace!). When asked from where the milkman obtained the milk my Learner said 'a bottle'! We never reached a point were any cow was involved. Indeed, the Learner was somewhat disgusted by the very idea!

It is important therefore that we do not take for granted our knowledge of the world and of things in the world, even everyday things such as milk and potatoes and toast! If we are working with such concepts, their symbols, their names then we must try and make the meaning explicit such that the Learner has a chance of making connections.

See also:

Brady, N.C., & McLean, L.K. (2000). Emergent symbolic relations in speakers and non-speakers, Research in Developmental Disabilities, Volume 21 (3), pp. 197 – 21

Carr, D., & Felce, J. (2008). Teaching picture-to-object relations in picture-based requesting by children with autism: a comparison between error prevention and error correction teaching procedures, Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, Volume 52 (4), pp. 309 – 317

Cowley, B.J., Green, G., & Braunling-McMorrow, D. (1992). Using stimulus equivalence procedures to teach name-face matching to adults with brain injuries. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. Volume 25 (2): pp. 461 – 475

De Saussure. M. (1916). Cours De Linguistique Générale, 5th Edition, Paris: Payout. English Translation by BASKIN W., Course in General Linguistics, New York: Philosophical Library, 1959

Devany, J. M., Hayes, S. C., & Nelson, R. O. (1986). Equivalence class formation in language-able and language-disabled children. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Volume 46, pp. 243 - 257.

Eikeseth, S., & Smith T. (1992). The development of functional and equivalence classes in high-functioning autistic children: the role of naming. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior; Volume 58 (1): pp. 123 – 133.

Jackendoff, R. (1993). Patterns in the mind: Language and human nature, Harvester Wheatsheaf

Kenny, A. (1973). Wittgenstein. Allen Lane : The Penguin Press

Mackay, H., Wilkinson, K. M., & Farrell, C., & Serna, R. (2011). Evaluating merger and intersection of equivalence classes with one member in common.Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Volume 96, pp. 87 - 105.

Mandler, A.L. (2010). The development of stimulus equivalence in young children, Applied Behavioral Analysis Master's Theses. Paper 21. Bouvé College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA.

Saunders, R.R., & Green, G. (1996) Naming is not (necessary for) stimulus equivalence. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Volume 65, pp. 312 - 314

Schusterman, R.J., Kastak, D., & Reichmuth, C.J. (1997). What’s in a name? Equivalence by any other name would smell as sweet. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Volume 68, pp. 252 - 258.

Sidman, M. (1971). Reading and auditory-visual equivalences, Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, Volume 14. pp.5 - 13

Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence relations and behavior: A research story Boston: Authors Cooperative

Thistle, J., & Wilkinson, K. M. (2009). The effects of color cues on typically developing preschoolers’ speed of locating a target line drawing: Implications for AAC display design. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, Volume 18, pp. 231 - 240.

Trask, R.L. (1995). Language - The basics, London: Routledge

Wilkinson, K. M., & Hennig, S. (2009). Consideration of cognitive, attentional, and motivational demands in the construction of aided AAC systems. In G. Soto & C. Zangari (Eds.), Practically Speaking: Language, Literacy, and Academic Development for Students with Special Needs, pp. 313-334. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Wilkinson, K. M., Rosenquist, C., & McIlvane, W. J. (2009). Exclusion learning and emergent symbolic category formation in individuals with severe language impairments and intellectual disabilities. The Psychological Record, Volume 59, pp. 187-206.

88. Stop and Go

The idea for the 'stop and go' game is for the Learner to:

- develop cause and effect;
- have control experiences;
- learn about the vocabulary used;
- recognise symbols;
- begin working with and understanding lexical verbs;
- have fun!

One Learner can pick any lexical verb to which they have access. Another chooses a member of staff (or two members of staff). The staff member or members have to begin to 'perform' the verb for the Learners when another nominated Learner says 'Go!". The staff members have to carry on performing the verb over and over until another nominated group member says "STOP" (or until a set timer rings). Each Learner has a turn in each role. While it can be very tiring for staff members it can be a lot of fun for Learners! One simple AAC system overlay can contain the names of staff present (see naming names earlier on this web page), another the choices of lexical verbs to be acted (hop, laugh, click fingers, jump, run, walk, turn, bow, ...) and a final simple AAC system the words 'stop' and 'go' to initiate and terminate the action.

89. Story Board

While there are thousands of stories out there there may still not be exactly the type of story that you require for a particular purpose. If that is the case then why not make up your own story? It's not that difficult. It has the advantage of being age appropriate, fit for purpose, contain language at a level that you know will suit a particular Learner, and be about things that the Learner will find stimulating.

What's that? You need an illustrated story and you are not good at drawing. No problem, use symbols! There are packages already available for doing this on paper (and some on PC and on iPad) on the market; Writing with Symbols, Communicate in Print, Imagetalk Symbol Writer, Pixwriter, Sign writing, Voice Ink, to name but a few. Then, the simple AAC system can be programmed to support or interact or read the story as desired. Of course, you do not need to use one of those packages, you can write out your story on paper and cut out and stick on images and symbols in any way that you want.

Here's some tips for you to consider. If a Learner is to interact with the story, it might/should:

- contain repeated story lines such that the Learner can join in at the appropriate moment.
- allow you to ask 'wh' questions of the Learner that s/he will be able to answer on a simple AAC system.
- contain vocabulary that the Learner will comprehend or that you wish to teach.
- contain syntax that the Learner will comprehend or that you wish to introduce.
- contain people, animals, and objects with which the Learner will be familiar and will find motivational.
- reference a subject the Learner find a BEST.
- address a particular topic that you wish the Learner to understand (such as 'stranger danger')
- be something another Significant Other could read with the Learner.
- be a 'Social Story' (see Social Stories on this web page).

I have written a couple of stories and made them available as interactive PowerPoint presentations. They are available to download free of charge for you to use for non-commercial purposes:

I don't want to do that

More Please

Where is my iPod?

If you explore and touch (or mouse click on) different areas of the screen, you will soon realise what the PowerPoints do. They are simple stories. They all work in similar ways. I have others (also free) if you are interested. Use the form at the foot of this page to ask about them.

90. Story Book

A Simple AAC system can offer a Learn the chance to pick a particular story to be read. The overlay should contain the front images from several favourite books.

It is common for children to want to hear the same story night after night so do not be surprised if the Learner continues to select the same book over and over. While it may be a little tedious for the reader, it is actually good for the Learner: s/he learns the story almost by heart and can predict what comes next - thus, a simple AAC system with an overlay with lines from the actual story might be provided such that the Learner can join in from time to time. The Learner can also begin to match the text to the story they know; in this way, emergent literacy skills are formed.

Please Note: there is a whole page on this website dedicated to literacy and AAC please click on the image left to move to that page.

91. Story Telling

Telling a story can be achieved by using an SSS as long as it can step (each activation moves it to the next part of the story) or by a MSS (Multi-Symbol System such as a GoTalk) providing that there are enough cells to house each part of the story. While one Learner could recount the lines of a story piece by piece, another Learner could provide the sound effects (see Sounds above) using a further simple AAC system. A third Learner could even provide visual effects using a project PowerPoint screen working from a single switch.

Using simple AAC children can read to Significant Others. They can take a story home and tell it to their parents for example. Imagine how excited and how proud they would be (the Learners and the parents!). Children could read to their siblings too and, of course, could tell stories to their classmates providing education, entertainment, and a acting as a role model for others to follow.

If a Learner has been out somewhere with a significant Other, why not capture some digital images of the day/trip (even small video recordings)? These can be used to tell a simple AAC story by making cell on the overlay recount one part of the day using the photographs taken as symbols. Some apps on the iPad can link to videos and so a cell could also tell a small part of the story whilst running a little video clip! Note that switch adapted digital cameras are available (search Google) and so all Learners can take their own photographs for use in such stories.

The 'Voice Ink' software from Unlimiter can also be used to turn stories written in Microsoft Word into a thing that can be used on an iPad. It's as easy as importing the Word document and then exporting it as an iPad app! You can even add sounds to any images in your document. The Learner can then read the story as a whole, or paragraph by paragraph, or sentence by sentence, or word by word. You can even use the app to look up individual words in Google! The Doctor Foster rhyme was copied into Microsoft Word and suitable images were added. Then is was imported into Voice Ink. Sound files were added to the images (Voice Ink deals with the words automatically) and then it was exported as an iPad file and ran on an iPad. Touching each word reads that word and touching the speakers reads that section. Furthermore, touching the images plays the sound files. It is also possible to make touching anywhere on the screen read the whole page. Also, as the iPad screen can be magnified by stretching it, the text can be enlarged. Of course, if a bigger font were to be used in the original Word document (as well as more spacing between the lines), the iPad screen would already be much more accessible!

92. Supportive Speech

We all like to shout in support of a favourite team or call out traditional lines at a pantomime (Oh yes you do!) so why should a Learner using an AAC system be any different? Therefore, the idea is program an overlay that the Learner can use in such circumstances. As simple AAC devices can record it is easy to store any chant, song, or other vocalisation required.

Furthermore, if a Learner returns from a 'match', s/he is likely to want to tell Significant Others about it. How can we program an overlay such that, no matter how the game went, the Learner can tell others? Of course, this depends on the available space (number of cells) and whether the team is mostly successful or not (!). However, an idea that might inspire you is provided below. It can be changed to suit your team colours, etc.

Come on you reds!

93. Symbol Referent Bonding

At some point in a Learner's education, it will become necessary to move from the use of real objects as a means to communication to the use of symbols via some form of augmentative communication system. Apart from the issues of space, weight, availability and inconvenience in the transporting of real objects, symbols allow the development of a new important skill; the ability to talk about a thing while it is out of sight. Thus, symbols can free Learners from contextually dependent communication.

In order to move to this stage, the Learner will need to understand that a two dimensional image relates directly to a three dimensional object. that a drawing of an orange relates to the fruit s/he often eats during the day, for example. For many Learners this stage of development may be achieved early and without problem; for others, it may take additional tuition and support. (See also stimulus equivalence on this web page)

In the example depicted, the orange symbol looks exactly like the real orange. However, it may be that the Learner never experiences a real orange but only oranges that are peeled and cut into segments and so, the orange symbol looks nothing like the Learner's experience of an orange in the world. There are, at least, two approaches to be made here: the first is to improve the learner's experience of the world and ensure that s/he is involved in preparing the orange snacks from the real fruit. Indeed, the Learner could be involved in the purchase of the fruit from the market (or, indeed, in the growing of the fruit in the garden if it is possible to grow that fruit in a particular climate). The second is selecting the symbol that looks more like the Learner's real life experience. The latter may be the more difficult even though there are a wide range of symbol sets available as well as images that can be obtained from the web.

Simple AAC systems can be used as a means of assisting Learners to understand the Symbol Referent bond. If each time they select a particular symbol from their Simple AAC System they are given a particular item (The O for Object in P-O-LE) Then they are likely to come to associate the symbol with the object even if it not a direct likeness.

There are a number of strategies that may be employed to assist a Learner to understand the relationship between a symbol and its referent, many of which can be found on the symbols page of this web site. The following is a list of some of the strategies that may be employed to build symbol referent bonds. There is no pretence that it is fully comprehensive or that it is any order of merit. If you are aware of other strategies that you would like to see added, please contact me at Talksense.

Symbol baseline

Object symbol pairing

Label the environment

Symbol timetables

Symbol menus

Switch symbols

Environmental engineering (TRV)

Symbol interchange (PECS)

Symbol snap

Symbol pairs game

Children's books

Photographs & Paintings

Toys and models

Symbolic play

Imitation of symbolic actions

text in here on each heading
Under construction apologies
In becoming symbolic creatures, we learn to think abstractly. At age three, children acquire the ability to think about things in two different ways at the same time: as both an object and a symbol for something else. Acquiring symbolic understanding is an important milestone in the cognitive development that helps us figure out how the world operates.

Children's books are full of two dimensional images that reference items in the real world. All children have to understand that the images in the books relate to real (and sometimes imaginary real things like ghosts and witches) things in the world. It happens so naturally that we almost take it for granted. Very young children (6-9 months) will explore a picture book manually, running their hands over the pages to try to make sense of the two dimension aspect of an apparently three dimensional image. They will even try to pick up the item in a good quality colour photograph if it is of a size that they believe is something they can handle. In doing so, they begin to realise that the image is NOT a known object but a 'picture' of a known object. Colour photographs are explored more than black and white photographs which, themselves are more explored than colour line drawings and last are black and white line drawings. The more the picture actually looks like the item it represents the more the young child will explore. However, there is still some exploration of black and white line drawings. Thus, a big part of learning about symbols is in the exploration and involvement in children's story books. However, that immediately throws up a problem; how can a child experiencing a severe physical disability explore the pictures in a book in the same way? It is our job to make that possible. Making such books accessible assists children not only in the specific symbolics of literacy (text) but in also coming to terms with symbols and their referents in general. Typically, by the time children are nineteen months old they will stop exploring pictures in books as though they were real objects and begin to interact with them as though they were pictures: they actually begin to point to the pictures to communicate with Significant Others. Children, at this age, now have the idea of the picture as opposed to the object. Many individuals experiencing a profound intellectual impairment may be operating at a cognitive level of less than this age. They need to be given experiences that allow them to understand the duality of the symbol.

Things that are representations of other things such as photographs and paintings are in themselves symbols. They symbolise the thing in the photo although they are in and of themselves real things. Thus, if a children is encourage to paint, draw, and create representations of other things in subjects such as art (for example they are learning about representation and about symbols. Just pushing your hand into some wet plaster to make a copy of your hand or drawing around your hand shape both create symbols. Children should be given lots of such experiences in order to build their awareness of themselves and the world in general and representation and symbols in particular.

In playing with toys that are scaled down versions of the real thing (such as a toy car) or playing with a model of a real thing, children are playing with symbols. As they start to involve themselves in play and create sound effects, movements, and any accompanying comments that relate to the toy/model as if it was a real object in the real world then they are working with a duality of representation which is an essential component of understanding and working with two the dimensional symbols as used on this web page. Thus it is important that children be involved in all forms of imaginary play for, in so doing, they are developing (and demonstrating) awareness of symbolic understanding. Children, up to approximately the age of 2.5 years, are typically unable to understand a relationship between a model and a real thing. Yet, by three years of age the misunderstanding is all but gone. In an experiment, children were shown a scaled down version of a room and a scaled down version of a toy was hidden in the model room so that the children could see were it was hidden. When the child was taken to the real room to locate the toy, at up to 2.5 years of age they could not do it. However, nearly all children at three years of age had no problem whatsoever with the assignment (DeLoache J., 2007, Allen L. Edwards Psychology Lectures). The children who could not locate the toy in the real room, however, could locate the miniature toy in the model room after returning: it was not a problem of memory.

Children engage in symbolic play all the time. They will use an object from their world as a representation of another thing. They might use a broom stick as a motorbike, for example. It's not they they don't know it's a broom stick but, for the moment, they pretend that its a bike, or a plane, or a horse and use it symbolically.

In typical child development, children will use all manner of items for symbolic play (see above). This area focuses on the child's ability to copy another's symbolic play or use of items. For example, if a member of staff picks up a broom and uses it as a pretend sword, or a pretend bat, or a pretend horse, does the Learner (if able) do the same?

94. Symbolic Support

As can be seen from the above section, the requirement for a symbol is not just an unnecessary inconvenience, it is a vital component of the communicative function of the system. However, too often, I see BIGmacks and other SSS systems (and some two location systems) being used without a symbol. For me, such a scenario suggests fly-swatting (see section on fly-swatting on this web page) rather than cognitive engagement (see section on cognitive engagement on this webpage).

Where systems have dynamic screens, adding a symbol to a cell is an almost automatic part of the process. Where systems are non-dynamic and have limited overlay size (one or two locations) then there is a temptation for staff to use the system without adding a symbol as, to do so would take time. Time is always an issue is special education (indeed, in all education) and therefore it is better if we plan for the need for symbols for both switches and SSS devices such that staff do not have to go searching.

In my last AAC teaching position, the Speech Therapy assistant made up a bag of circular switch and BIGmack symbols for each tutor which were pinned to the noticeboard in their classrooms. the bags contained symbols that were cut to fit exactly under switch caps for common occurrences during typical sessions. For example, there were several symbols in each bag for 'good morning' (several because inevitably one would get lost or damaged during use), 'music', 'sensory', as well as ones for particular toys (bubbles for the bubble blower for example) and cause and effect items in use. This meant that a staff member only had to look in the bag for a particular symbol when it was required; a process that took less than thirty seconds. The Speech Therapy Assistant repeated this process at the beginning of every term (three times a year) because the bags would slowly empty as symbols were lost or got damaged during use.

95. Switching Functions

Some simple AAC devices can also act as a switch that will control a simple battery operated toy or even a mains device. However, not all simple AAC devices have this functionality. Generally speaking, when a message is recorded into a simple AAC device and the device is also use as a switch, the toy (or other) remains active for the duration of the message (See section on timing). Again, this feature only applies to some simple AAC systems and not to them all.

If a simple AAC is used in this way, it can simply acts as a timer (as detailed in the timing section below) and not 'speak' or it can:

- provide an appropriate spoken accompaniment to the operation of the external device
(for example saying 'that's really cool' as a fan operates);
- provide sound effects to accompany a toy (barking for a toy dog for example)
- play some accompanying background music;
- instruct the Learner (after a specific period of time) to release the switch

Providing toys have been adapted, simple AAC devices can be connected directly with a suitable cable (one which has a male 3mm jack plug at each end). If the toy is not adapted, it may be possible to adapt it with a battery device adapter which can purchased from many special needs suppliers.

Mains equipment can also be controlled safely through an interface system such as the Powerlink from Ablenet or the Click-On from Inclusive Technology or Mains Controller from Pretorian. The mains item is plugged directly into the interface and the switch into a jack socket (or wireless). The mains and the switch never actually come into direct contact so there is no danger of Learners being electrocuted even if they were able to break the switch wire.

96. Take Your Turn

In the cartoon, a lady is 'talking' with a Learner. However, the conversation is a little one-sided! The Lady answers her own questions and then moves on to the next never giving the Learner a chance to respond. This might happen because the person is unsure about things and nervous about such an interaction. However, if this is typical of a Learner's day then it is very unlikely that s/he will ever become proficient in the use of an AAC system.

"Sometimes an individual is obliged to take a turn in an interaction because the partner
asks a question. For example, when a partner asks, “What are you doing?”, the individual is obliged to answer. Turns that follow a partner’s question are obligatory turns. Sometimes an individual is invited to take a turn in a conversation but is not obligated to do so. For example, when a partner says, “I went to a great concert,” the individual is invited to take a turn in response (e.g. “Cool!”) but is not obligated to take a turn. Turns that follow a partner’s comment or statement or turns that start a conversation are non-obligatory turns. Taking turns frequently in interactions, including those that are obligatory and those that are not obligatory, is one way for individuals to let partners know that they are interested and involved in the conversation and that they are competent communicators." (Light, J. & Binger, C. 1998, p. 113)

As riding a bicycle might be best learnt by getting on a bike and riding so communication may perhaps be best learnt by communicating. The Learner needs an opportunity to communicate; it might be slow and difficult but unless Significant Others make the time then there will be no opportunities for the Learner to practise the skill. The problem is that our typical communication partners tend to speak at a rate commensurate with that of our own. When communication rates fall significantly below this level it makes us feel uncomfortable. We tend not to like 'awkward silences' and want to fill the gaps with more speech! Listener behaviour changes when speech is slow. This is comically demonstrated in the video 'The Slow Talkers of America' by Bob and Ray, two American comics with some great observations on slow speech.

When a communication partner speak too slowly, the Listener has too much time for processing, and the mind either focuses on how irritatingly slowly the speaker is talking or wanders off to more interesting things. The Listener may also adopt strategies (unused with higher rates of speech) to 'assist' the speaker. For example, the Listener might guess the remaining part of the sentence and predict what is to follow. After a while, the Listener might, as in the cartoon above, begin to answer his/her own questions, move to yes/no questions or abruptly terminate the conversation.

Slow speech is typically viewed as a lack of command of a language or of intellect:
"And Moses said unto the LORD, O my Lord, I am not eloquent, neither heretofore, nor since thou hast spoken unto thy servant: but I am slow of speech, and of a slow tongue." (King James Bible, Exodus 4:10)

but even the greatest minds may be 'handicapped' by slow speech:

"But the Cambridge University professor is now losing the use of the nerves in his cheek which enable him to speak with the help of a computer and an infra-red sensor in his mouth. Judith Croasdell, his personal assistant, said: "His speech has got slower and slower and on a bad day he can only manage about one word a minute." (article in Daily Telegraph on Prof. Stephen Hawking, 5th January 2012, by Nick Collins, Science Correspondent).

As syntax follows semantics so pragmatics follows syntax. That is we learn words and their meanings (semantics) before we start to string them together (syntax) before we learn the social niceties of communication (pragmatics). It is no wonder that many Learners working with AAC have poor pragmatic skills. If we focus on turn taking (first I speak then you reply then I speak again ...), as we have seen the practical aspects of communication may alter the partners behaviour in such a way to negate normal turn taking structures. The communication partner may come to dominate the conversation with the Learner relegated to a role of passive listener:

"Speech is power in our society. Hence, it should surprise no one that freedom of speech is the first right guaranteed to all Americans in the Bill of Rights. Deprived of speech or another means of effective communication, individuals become invisible. They are simply not heard. They are silenced. And, when people are silenced, others quickly lose sight of their right to be a part of humanity!" (Bryen, D. 1993)

"In the English speaking culture ......, a high value is placed on talking. Indeed, the more one talks, the more one is viewed as a desirable and an active conversational partner. In contrast, individuals who talk very little are often viewed as withdrawn and less competent, making their partners feel uncomfortable." (Hoag, L., Bedrosian, J., Johnson, D., Molineux, B. 1994)

"The goal of any communication system is to increase an individual’s ability to communicate more effectively and efficiently. Typically those who rely on augmentative communication systems communicate at slower rates and with restrictive vocabulary sets. The response by their speaking communication partners is to dominate the conversation by initiating, setting the topic, asking yes/no questions, not pausing long enough to allow the augmentative communicator to respond and closing the conversation. The augmentative communicator then may assume a very passive role in the conversation with reduced social experiences and reduced motivation to use the communication system." (Morris, K. & Newman, K. 1993 page 85)

"Typically, aided speakers have been found to be passive responders who contribute significantly less to the conversational exchange. They exhibit a limited range of communicative functions and rely to a greater extent than do their speaking partners on non-verbal communicative behaviour. They produce a high proportion of yes/no responses and other brief, low-information responses. In their interactions with aided speakers, speaking partners tend to dominate the conversation. They initiate topics more frequently, ask a high proportion of yes/no and forced choice questions, and occupy more of the conversational space." (Buzolich, M. & Lunger, J. 1995)

It is therefore important that we:

- make time to communicate with those Learners using AAC;
- provide opportunity and the time for Learners to respond;
- take turns with Learners;
- don't predict what the Learner is going to say or use any other 'speeding-up' strategy unless instructed to do so by the Learner.
- don't show signs of impatience and behaviours we would consider rude in others.

If time is of the essence then there are technique which will allow Learners to operate on an almost equal footing with their verbal peers. One of these is detailed immediately below. The technique is called 'Temporarily Restricted Vocabularies'.

See Also:

Bryen, D. (1993). Augmentative Communication Mastery:One approach and some preliminary outcomes. The First Annual Pittsburgh
Employment Conference for Augmented Communicators Proceedings, August 20-22:   Shout Press: Pittsburgh

Buzolich, M. & Lunger, J. (1995). Empowering system users in peer training, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 11 (1), March 1995, pp 37 - 48

Hoag, L., Bedrosian, J., Johnson, D., Molineux, B. (1994). Variables affecting perceptions of social aspects ofthe communicative competence of an adult AAC user, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 10 (3), September 1994, pp. 129 - 137.

Higginbotham, D.J., Shane, H., Russell, S. & Kevin Caves, K. (2007). Access to AAC: Present, past, and future, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 23 (3), pp. 243 - 257

Koester, H.H., & Levine, S.P. (1996). Effect of a Word Prediction feature on User Performance. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 12, pp. 155 - 168.

Light, J. & Binger, C. (1998). Building communicative competence with individuals who use augmentative and alternative communication. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Morris, K. & Newman, K. (1993). Vocabulary to promote social interaction using augmentative communication devices, 14th Southeast Annual Augmentative Communication Conference Proceedings, pp. 85 - 92, Birmingham, Alabama: SEAC

Romich, B & Hill, K, (2000). AAC communication rate measurement: tools for clinical use. Proceedings of the RESNA 2000 Annual Conference. Orlando, FL. pp. 58 - 60.

Smith, L.E., Higginbotham, D.J., Lesher, G.W., Moulton, B., & Mathy, P. (2006). The development of an automated method for analyzing communication rate in augmentative and alternative communication.  Assistive Technology, Volume 18 (1). pp.107-121.

Venkatagiri, H.S. (1993). Efficiency of lexical prediction as a communication acceleration technique. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 9, pp. 161 - 167.

Wisenburn B. & Higginbotham, D.J. (2009). Participant Evaluations of Rate and Communication Efficacy of an AAC Application Using Natural Language Processing,  Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 25 (2) , pp. 78 - 89

97. Temporarily Restricted Vocabularies

The second vocabulary and language barrier relates to ‘verbal’ classroom participation. All students, at all grade levels, are asked questions, ask questions of others, take oral examinations, and are called upon to recite information. In some classrooms, even shy
students who speak cannot get a word in edgewise. For augmented communicators, the possibilities of well timed speaking is even more remote. The pace of verbal exchanges is too fast to allow even the most efficient student using AAC to participate.
                                   (Van Tatenhove G. & Vertz S. 1993 page 129)

A TRV (Temporarily Restricted Vocabulary)(pronounced TREV) is a small subset of the vocabulary that may or may not be contained within any person’s AAC system. It allows a beginner to be involved in an activity on an equal footing with peers.

Trvs can be set up in a variety of ways: either with (typically) fringe words or, alternatively, with phrases:
                                     “That’s right!”
                                     “That’s wrong!”
                                     “I need to think about it”
                                     “I don’t know”

The class are told that they must use one of these phrases in response to the teacher’s questions in the session that will follow. For example, the maths teacher might say:

“If I am facing South and I turn two right angles clockwise. Am I now facing North?”

The pupil has to respond with one of the messages. People using an AAC system can usually access one of the responses in real time on a level footing with their verbal peers. There is a further benefit. In this instance, the  messages are a useful addition to the Learner’s vocabulary: they may be used in other lessons and other situations they may encounter:

“Jane you’re 14 now , aren't you?”         “That’s right”

However, it is unlikely that many standard TRVs would be added to or already be a part of the Learner's vocabulary. This is because TRVs are typically comprised of fringe vocabulary.

Other TRV’s might include:

      'Tudor'           'Jacobean'              'Stuart'

      'heart'                  'spleen'                    'neuron'                'liver'

'hydrogen'          'helium'                    'oxygen'                'nitrogen'

‘I agree’              ‘I don’t agree’         ‘I'm not sure’         ‘I don’t know’

‘True’                    ‘False                      ‘Sometimes’

As can be seen from above, TRV’s can be noun sets. For example, a set of materials:

     ‘cloth’, ‘wood’, ‘metal’, ‘glass’, ‘paper’, ‘plastic’

In this instance, a staff member would require a response from the Learner who would select one of the given materials:

      “Which material is transparent?”
      “Which material is used to make books?”
      “Which material is made from sand?”
      “Which material is not man-made?”
      "From which material is this desk made?"
      "Which one is iron?"
      "From which one are most clothes made?"

TRVs should always be contained on an overlay of, at least, two words or phrases. If a person is tested for comprehension, the larger the TRV the less opportunity of obtaining a right answer by chance alone. At the other extreme, there is a limit to the size of any TRV. Too big a set becomes a sub-vocabulary or a category in its own right and does not allow a user to interact with peers on an equal footing in a classroom interchange. Ideally, a TRV is more than one but less than seven.

A TRV could be set up to give directions to a staff member in a treasure trail game or a game of hide and seek. For example:

      ‘Right’, ‘Left’, ‘Forward’, ‘Backwards’, ‘Stop’
      ‘Up’, ‘Down’, ‘Right’, ‘Left’

TRVs are ideal for games:

Each player starts with one point. Using a pack of cards the user has to state whether the next card is ‘higher’ or ‘lower’ or‘red’ or ‘black’ for a doubling of  their points total - OR - ‘hearts’, ‘spades’, ‘clubs’, or ‘diamonds’ to treble their points total. The user may stop at any time by saying ‘stop’. The person with the highest points at the end is the winner.

The TRVs give control to the augmented communicator with minimum effort and without the need for many hours of vocabulary instruction. Temporarily Restricted Vocabularies:

-       allow augmented communicators to participate in lessons on an equal footing with peers;
-       answer the requirement of some teachers for access to special vocabulary;
-       are not necessarily a part of the Learner’s regular communication system but available for use as and when necessary;
-       may be easily spoken in real time; the class is not made to wait for long periods while a user generates a response;
-      focus Learner thinking on the answer rather than where a particular word is located in their communication system;
-       can ease the pressure felt when asked a question;
-       ensure users are not singled out as special - everyone is the same;
-       are easy to set up; vocabulary may be quickly added into some systems if generally useful;
-       involve subject tutors in the responsibility for the preparation and tuition of new vocabulary;
-       are created, kept and maintained by individual tutors. As such tutors understand them;
-       do not require many hours of vocabulary tuition before their use;
-       may be categorised or themed;
-       speed access to vocabulary for switch users;
-       allow symbols to be displayed at a larger size to ease selection. If appropriate to do so, these can be added to a Learner's
        symbol board at the standard size;
-       may be used to teach and test key concepts;
-       are best used with all pupils or students in a class or group;
-       should be stored into a Learner's communication system only if they are considered of general use;
-       should always use the same symbols as in a Learner's communication system (if they are present);
-       may be used to engineer the environment;
-       take fringe vocabularies out of personal communication systems (PCS); PCS becomes leaner, lighter and easier;
-       are always >1 but typically <7.

As suggested above, a TRV may be used to engineer the environment. In this instance, the TRV becomes a permanent or semi-permanent part of the surroundings. For example there are a set of things that may be need to be said while having a bath which are not really needed elsewhere. The TRV for these things could be on the wall by the bath. There are things which are said at meal times which may not be generally needed at other times of the day. These could be displayed on a menu board or on a table menu.

98. Timing Using simple AAC devices

People are often surprised to discover that some simple AAC devices can act as timers to control an external, battery-powered toy or appliance. When the toy is connected to the simple AAC system and it is activated, the toy or appliance will remain in the 'on state' for the length of the recorded message If the message is short the toy will only stay on for a very short period. If the message is long then the toy will remain active until the message is complete and then stop.

Thus, to turn your simple AAC system into a timer simply record a message or a sound of the length of time required and attach the toy or appliance using the appropriate cable. While the message is playing the toy is active. If you do not want a message or sound simply record silence for the desired time interval.

For example, plugging an external switch into the BIGmack will operate a toy or appliance for a period of time up to two minutes (the maximum recording time on a BIGmack).

Note : If you are using a toy or appliance to teach cause and effect skills then, ideally, you should use timings of between 5 and 15 seconds as the reward for a single switch activation. Anything longer is too much and anything less is too little.

99. That Ain't Right! Creative Asininity for Beginners

When their little boy didn't start to speak long after his young friends were talking all the time, mum and dad took him to see the doctor, who could find nothing wrong with him. Then, one day several months later the boy said,
"My soup is cold."
His parents were ecstatic.

"Why haven't you spoken to us up to now?"
"Because everything's been OK so far", came the reply.

This old (and rather feeble!) joke makes the point that sometimes the motivation has to come from other sources than the Learner him or herself. Sometimes it takes a little bit of psychology to motivate a reluctant communicator to speak. Creative asininity is one technique that has proved to have good results. What is 'creative asininity'? It is acting stupid with a purpose:

"Creating natural opportunities for teaching learners spontaneously to request spoons is straightforward - apple sauce is provided without a spoon." (Reichle, J. & Sigafoos, J. 1991 p. 159)
Jerome Bruner (1983) referred to a technique which he called ‘scaffolding’. Scaffolding involves the selective modification of a person’s environment to promote the use of language and encourage participation in communication interactions which, without the use of such a technique, would probably fail to occur.

"According to Bruner, children acquire language through social interactions scaffolded by more expert communicators than themselves." (Letto, M., Bedrosian, J., & Skarakis-Doyle, E. 1994)

Letto, Bedrosian, and Skarakis-Doyle (1994) traced the roots of Bruner’s scaffolding theory to the Russian psychologist Vygotsky’s (Vygotsky, L.S. 1978) notion of the ‘zone of proximal development’ (ZPD):

"The ZPD involves the difference between the child’s actual level of development as determined by independent performance and the child’s potential level of development accomplished through collaborative interaction with the more skilled partner." (Letto, M., Bedrosian, J., & Skarakis-Doyle, E. 1994)

"One of Vygotsky’s main contributions to educational theory is a concept termed the ‘zone of proximal development’. This he used to refer to the ‘gap’ that exists for an individual between what he is able to do alone and what he can achieve with help from one more knowledgeable or skilled than himself." (Wood, D. 1988)

"The mother (Facilitator) must always be a step ahead, in what Vygotsky calls the 'zone of proximal development'; the infant (Learner) cannot move into, or conceive of, the next stage ahead except through its being occupied and communicated to him by his mother (Facilitator)." (Sacks, O. 1989)(My additions in brackets)

This idea is related to Wittgenstein’s notion of the ‘language game’ (Wittgenstein, L. 1953) and to De Saussure’s (1916) pioneering work (See also Pears, D. 1971, Kenny, A. 1973, Culler, J.. 1976, Harris, R. 1988, McGuinness, B. 1988). This section concentrates on a specific idea related to Wittgenstein’s ‘language game’, Vygotsky’s ‘Zone of proximal development’, and Bruner’s ‘scaffolding’(BRUNER J. S. 1983). This idea is known as Creative Asininity.

Creative Asininity is a term first used by Ashworth and Jones (1989) in a paper on Initiation Management. It was used to describe an intervention strategy which employs environmental engineering, inventive language usage, cognitive management, and Creative Asininity to maximise communication.

Initiation Management is a technique in which users are placed in a managed situation where the emphasis is on communication. This fundamentally differs to scripting (see Glennen, S. 1986) because there is no prepared script for the user, although some variations of scripting may have many similar elements (see Elder, P. & Goossens, C. 1993). The environment is carefully engineered to encourage spontaneous utterances of more than a single word. The Learner is not aware of being stage managed. Creative Asininity refers to a technique where the facilitator (or other) deliberately obstructs any easy unaided route to the user’s goal and forces the extensive use of speech.

Examples may help to make ‘Initiation Management’ and ‘Creative Asininity’ clearer. A Facilitator holds up a book and asks a Learner to go and get one from a nearby room:

"John, will you go to [Mrs. Accomplice] and get me one of these, please?” (POINTING TO BOOK)

The Facilitator is careful not to name the object nor to state its attributes. Mrs. Accomplice is, of course, primed. On a shelf in her room, out of reach, are several books of different colours and sizes. The Learner has to ask for the book. Mrs. Accomplice can be as helpful or unhelpful in this task as is required. If the Learner points to the book Mrs. Accomplice can make use of creative asininity to block this unaided strategy:

"Sorry, my eyes aren't too good today, and I've not got my glasses. Can you tell me what you want?”

(A better technique is not to have the books on view.) Mrs Accomplice may prompt the Learner on the choice of colour and size or alternatively allow an incorrect choice to be made. If the Learner returns with a book that is not the same colour as the book shown, the Facilitator can request a return visit clarifying the user’s mistake:

"No not quite John. Look at my book. Now look at the book you have brought. Do you think you can get me a book that is
the same colour?”

If the establishment has a small shop the Learner might be asked to purchase something:

"Sally, I'm very busy today. Could you help me please and go and get me a can of coke from the shop? Here’s the money.”

The shop keeper should have been primed so as to negate the possibility of Sally pointing at the desired item. The environment is engineered so the particular item is not on display. If Sally attempts to sign the word then the shop keeper can use Creative Asininity to negate this route:

"Err, I don’t sign. Sorry”
or:
"Sorry Sally, I've got a headache and my eyes are hurting. My signing is not too good today. What is it you want?”

And, if Sally were to use her communication board and not her simple AAC device (Please note that is not my intent to devalue or denigrate the use of communication boards but, in the instance where the goal is to get Sally to use her SGD) the shop keeper could again use Creative Asininity:

"I can’t see what you are pointing to from here but I can hear you. Can you tell me?”
or:
"I'm really too busy to stop and watch what you are doing right now Sally but, if you speak, I can continue with what I'm doing.”

Although the Learner may have to make repeated journeys to succeed in bringing back the desired item, failure is not a consideration. Contingency plans are built into every Initiation Management situation such that the amount of help given is proportional to the number of journeys made.

An additional (and rather more complex) example of Initiation Management requires three members of staff and a piece of cake. Member of staff A keeps a Learner back after class on a pretence. A has a piece of cake on a plate which s/he is about to eat. At that moment, staff member B pops into the room and says there is an urgent phone call for A. A leaves the room with B but asks the Learner to mind the cake. The Learner is thus left alone in charge of the cake. Then, member of staff C comes into the room. C sits down in front of the Learner and says "Ah! A piece of cake”, and picks it up pretending to be about to take a bite. However, C holds back from actually biting into the cake, stopping just short of this act and engages the Learner in conversation, starting to tell the Learner about a busy day or some other irrelevance. C’s job is to keep raising the cake as if to eat, but then stopping short, to carry on the conversation. Some predetermined time is set before C actually eats the cake! If the Learner does not initiate conversation to stop C eating the cake in this time then C eats the cake and leaves the room. However, this is not the end of the matter. Staff member A returns from the phone call at this point and blames the Learner for eating the cake! The Learner is expected to explain the situation.!

Initiation Management fosters communication. The Learner is unaware that the situation is engineered and responses are monitored for later review. Much useful insight into the minds of Learners can be gleaned. There are many situations that can be easily created. The number is limited only by the imagination.

There are some prerequisites for any person in an initiation management situation:

- The Learner must be capable of using appropriate vocabulary;
-   The Learner must be able to comprehend your request;
- Any accomplices must be primed;
- Contingency plans covering all eventualities should be laid down in advance;
- Results should be recorded and evaluated.

CASE STUDY: Student Saul is 17 and loves swimming. It was decided that on the day he was to go swimming to modify the routine slightly! Instead of taking a right turn at a T-junction in the college corridor towards the swimming pool, the carer would make a left turn. The objective was for Saul to say that they were going away from swimming and not towards it. A list was made of the acceptable vocabulary which would be allowable as a remedy to this situation. The team made sure Saul knew this range of words. Contingency plans were laid down. If Saul did not make any sign of responding to the change in the routine, the carer would prompt at a certain point: (At the top of the college drive, just outside, in a puzzled tone) -

"Well, I'm completely lost now. I don’t know where I should have taken you. My mind is all confused today.”

If this did not bring about the desired response, then the next prompt would be:

"It’s no good, you’ll have to help me. Where should we be going. I think it should be either cooking, swimming, life skills,
or is it numeracy?”

In the event, no sooner had the carer turned in the wrong direct than Saul said clearly using his system "Swimming”

We can create anomaly. That is we do something that we know to be strange or incorrect in the hope that the Learner will point out our 'mistake' using simple AAC. What sort of things can we do? Here are a few ideas:

- changing the way something is done;
-   changing the furniture around;
-   changing the order;
-   doing something strange to an item in the room (television upside-down);
-   doing something odd or amusing;
-   forgetting to do something;
-   giving something to the wrong person;
-   missing someone out;
-   making something that the augmented communicator normally finds easy to do hard to do - a door doesn't open, a TV won’t
switch on. Reichle, Anderson, and Schermer (1986) fixed a twist tie on a bread bag so that it was really difficult to undo and
Kouri (1988) placed items out of reach as well as screwing a jar lid on very tightly in order to increase the possibility of
spontaneous requests for help.

"Items were placed out of subjects’ direct reach and routine activities interfered with (e.g. a lid was screwed on too tight for subject to open) in order to elicit spoken or gestural requests which were then reinforced by the clinician’s compliance." (Kouri, T. 1988)

"The environment can be arranged in ways that optimize the probability that the learner will make requests spontaneously. The learner’s propensity to make requests spontaneously may depend on the interaction between conditions imposed by the environment and the learner’s state at any particular point in time." (Reichle, J. & Sigafoos, J. 1991 p. 160)

"Adolescents and adults who are moderately or severely developmentally delayed and use AAC systems often do not readily recognize opportunities to communicate. the normally occurring environmental events may not be salient enough for individuals who have learned to be passive participants and passive communicators. For these individuals sabotage routines may prove beneficial. When the AAC user is already familiar with the action sequences of an activity, sabotage routines are powerful techniques to facilitate message generation." (Elder, P. & Goossens, C. 1993 page 41)

OK, so you now know what creative asininity is. However, the process is not quite as simple as acting stupid (with purpose) because the Learner has to be able to tell us we are acting stupid. In other words, the Learner has to have:

- access to the necessary vocabulary;
- a knowledge of where the necessary vocabulary is stored (under what symbol);
- an understanding of the meaning of the necessary vocabulary;
- an ability to order the necessary vocabulary into a meaningful utterance;
- the motivation to act;

See Also:

Ashworth, S., & Jones, A.P. (1989). Towards an educational paradigm for Cerebral Palsy, Unpublished. Portland College, Mansfield

Bruner, J. (1983). In search of mind. New York: Harper & Row

Culler, J. (1976). Saussure. Fontana Modern Masters

Elder, P. & Goossens, C. (1993). Activity-based scripts with adolescents and adults who are moderately / severely developmentally
disabled. 14th Southeast Annual Augmentative Communication Conference Proceedings,  pp. 33 - 45, Birmingham, Alabama: SEAC

Glennen, S. (1986). Early language training using Minscript concepts,1st Annual Minspeak Conference Proceedings, Detroit, MI. 19th - 20th November, pp. 19 ‑ 26, PRC / Liberator

Harris, R. (1988). Language, Saussure and Wittgenstein: How to play games with words. Routledge

Kenny, A. (1973). Wittgenstein. Allen Lane : The Penguin Press

Kouri, T. (1988). Effects of simultaneous communication in a child-directed treatment approach with preschoolers with severe disabilities, AAC, Volume 4 (4), pp. 222 - 232

Letto, M., Bedrosian, J., & Skarakis-Doyle, E. (1994). Application of Vygotskian developmental theory to language acquisition in a young child with cerebral palsy, AAC, Volume 10, September 1994, pp. 151 - 160

McGuinness, B. (1988). Wittgenstein: A life. Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd

Pears, D. (1971). Wittgenstein. Fontana Modern Masters

Reichle, J., Anderson, H., & Schermer, G. (1986). Establishing the discrimination between requesting objects, requesting assistance and "helping yourself”. Unpublished, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis

Reichle, J. & Sigafoos, J. (1991). Establishing spontaneity and generalization. In - Implementing AAC: Strategies for learners
with severe disabilities, pp. 157 - 171. Reichle, J. York, J., & Sigafoos, J.(Eds.). Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Sacks, O. (1989). Seeing Voices, University of California press, Picador Edition (1991)

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes, Cambridge, MA: Havard University Press

Wood, D. (1988). How children think and learn. Blackwell Publishers

100. That's Enough

During a previous position, I had purchased a pouring cup from Enabling Devices (available in the UK from Independent Life Technologies) and was working with a bright young lady. I had decided that she should pour her own milk into the coffee that she would instruct me how to make. I had set the system up before she came into the room so that it was ready when the coffee had been poured and, when the time came to add some milk, I attached her switches to the system, explained how it worked, and allowed her to control it to do the pouring. The problem was she kept on pouring! The coffee and milk overflowed in the cup and it went all over the table top. I didn't shout for her to stop; I just allowed her to carry on to see what she would do. She wasn't laughing; she was not treating it as a joke. She did not appear to understand the concept and the pouring mechanism simply emptied all of the milk and carried on turning! That is not to criticise the pouring cup system: it is a wonderful device (see video below), it was simply that this young lady had no real experience with pouring (plenty with switches) and I had expected her to understand the concept and be able to work with it just like that. It was me that was at fault. Needless to say, over the next few days, I spent time with the young lady on this and soon she was pouring all manner of things herself successfully.

We tend to shy away from allowing some Learners to add things or pour things for themselves because of issues with safety and with making messes, especially to themselves. Over zealousness in this area can promote learned dependency and passivity:

"All children are dependent upon adult caretakers for fulfilment of their physical and emotional needs. In the process of becoming autonomous, children explore and test their world and begin signalling their growing independence to caretakers through physical actions and spoken messages. If provided with an adequate climate for growth, an increasingly solid foundation for independence in adult life will be formed. However, for children with severe communication and/or physical limitations this process of self growth may be overlooked or suppressed. Because many children experiencing the aforementioned challenges are not able to signal their readiness for exploration or independence in traditional ways, parents and other caretakers (e.g. professional service providers, educators, etc.) are inclined to continue to act as direct or indirect agents for fulfilling the child’s needs. When later provided with adequate means to express, query, or explore, (e.g. Assistive Technology) the child may persist in a more passive state due to learned helplessness or learned dependency" (Sweeney, L. 1993)

However, both the technology and simple AAC can help overcome these issues. The technology enables Learners to do some things for themselves while simple AAC enables Learner s to control others to do things with them on their behalf.

Overlays can be constructed at varying levels of simplicity/complexity according to the needs of the Learner. Such overlays might contain access to vocabulary such as 'That's', 'Can I have', 'some', 'too', 'much', 'more', 'enough', 'big', 'small', 'stop', 'not', 'please', etc. (see overlay below for one possible configuration at one size). Thus, simple AAC can be used to allow a Learner to control others in asking for more, asking for less, and in saying when it is enough. I was going to draw a cartoon featuring a Learner saying 'Enough already with the milk!" but I thought it was a little stereotypical and thought better of it!

Systems are often removed at the dining table - ‘They get in the way and they might get food on them’ is a common reason given. Do not remove them! What do we typically do while we are eating? We talk! (Simple AAC users can talk with a full mouth!). If the primary goal of meal time is to teach independence through the development of personal eating and drinking skills, leave the AAC system aside and concentrate on the primary goal. However, if this is not the case, then provide access to both communication and food. (A large symbol board on the wall nearby for eye-pointing? A special place setting mat? A scanning system and a single switch operated at a distance? A new position for the SGD while eating?). While ‘Pass the salt’, ‘More’, ‘That’s enough’, ‘Please’ and ‘thank you’ are probably essential vocabulary items for meal times, they are hardly sparkling conversational topics. The topic of conversation can be manipulated to enable users to practise using their vocabulary. There are also times before and after meals when Learner s could be chatting to one another while at the table. Not having access to an SGD at these times is a serious impediment to such social chat. Of course simply having the systems available does not guarantee that a Learner will use it but, without access to such a system, it is certain that the Learner will not.

See Also:

101. Truth or Falsehood

On rare occasions, it might be necessary for a Learner to provide 'evidence' about something that has happened in a school meeting or even in a court of law. In such instances, if the Learner is not a competent communicator with access to thousands of words, it may be necessary to provide a specific overlay(s) for the occasion. It is important that 'words are not put into a Learner's mouth'; that is, the overlay being so designed as to make the Learner speak in a particular way (He touched me ..., She hurt me, I did not like it, I did not want the person to do it, ...) but, rather, make other explanations of events also possible such that any choice of statement is truly the Learner's own and not simple dictated by the available vocabulary from the overlay as far as is feasible.

After the loss of a loved one, it may be necessary to counsel a Learner. An overlay might be prepared so that the Learner might express her/his feelings at this particular time. Most would assume that words like sad and angry and concerned are appropriate (as, indeed they are) but not include words like happy, not, great. etc. Thus, in a counselling session, the only thing that the Learner is able to vocalise is exactly what we are expecting: a sense of loss, grief, and concern about the future. While that is likely how the Learner is feeling, we cannot assume that it is the whole truth (and nothing but the truth) if the Learner was denied a means of saying anything but those things.

In the same way, using yes/no questions can lead a Learner in one way rather than another:

"Did he hurt you?", "Did she take it?", " Did they come into your room?", "Did you want him to leave?", ...
"I bet you are feeling sad?", "Do you miss her?", "Are you concerned about what will happen now?", ...

I once saw a Gail Van Tattenhove presentation in which she showed a video. In It she was working with a little boy talking about getting dressed. Gail asked the little boy a number of questions to which he answered 'yes'. It appeared that the boy was cognizant of Gail's words and was a smart little chap. However, Gail then asked him, "Should I comb you hair with a bunch of worms?" (or some other such silly question) and the boy continued to say 'yes' in the same way. Indeed, he answered 'yes' to every question put to him regardless of the content (see yes/no questions later on this web page). Many children learn to say 'yes' in response to questions from Significant Other (see the section on Yes and No and the closed question format) because the answer they generally want is 'yes' and it obviously pleases them. It is no guarantee of Learner comprehension.

We all need and want to get at the truth in certain situations and a Learner may be a key witness in establishing the events. However, it is really important that the practices and techniques utilised do not lead a Learner to 'speak' in a particular way. At such times, the words that are used should truly be the Learner's own.

102. Using One to Request Another

A Learner may request a simple AAC system using a simpler AAC system! For example a Learner may be provided with a SSS (BIGmack or equivalent) in order to make a request to get his communication book or her particular overlay on the simple AAC system that is shared by several members of the class.

Such a scenario might have a practical aspect: for example, having an expensive AAC system near to water or to something that may cause damage might be undesirable. However, if a simpler and much less expensive system can be used to request the other then both the Learner and Significant Others can work without worry.

It is also possible for a Learner to request an AAC system via:

- pointing to (looking at) a symbol fixed to the arm of a wheelchair.
- wearing a pin or badge which can be touched to initiate the request
- making a special sign.

and, if overlays are not linked, to request a particular overlay from another on which the Learner can specify the page required.

103. Use Simple AAC Religiously

Apart from praying and singing hymns there are other ways to use simple AAC in support of ones faith, whatever that faith may be. Simple AAC can be used to:

- illustrate a proverb;
- tell a story from a religious text;
- provide special religious response lines from specific services
- pass a religious message;
- link (in some simple AAC systems) to a religious film clip or YouTube video;
- make confession;
- make a reading in a church;
- help educate a Learner in a religious text.
- assist in building religious tolerance;
- provide Learner support in times of distress;

What about storing a set of Christmas carols so that Learners can go carol singing?I knew a college that used to take a group of students using AAC to London Carol singing every year to raise money for specific charitable concerns.

See Also:

Broad, M. & Morgan, H. (2004). The importance of Spirituality for people with learning disabilities, PMLD Link, Volume 16 (3), pp. 9 - 11

Brown, E. (1993). Mixed Blessings - The Special Child in Your School. London: The National Society (Church of England) for Promoting Religious Education

Brown, E. (1995). Learning about Religious Belief in Special Schools - In World Religions in Education. Surrey:New Look Translations

Brown, E. (1996) Religious Education for All. London: David Fulton.

Dowell, J. & Nutt, M. (1995). An Approach to Religious Education at Piper Hill School, PMLD Link, Issue 22

Goss, P. (1995). Opening Up: The Inner Lives of Individuals with PMLD, PMLD Link, Issue 22

Isanon, A. (2001). Spirituality and the Autistic Spectrum: Of Falling Sparrows. Jessica Kingsley Publishers

Longhorn, F. (1993). Religious Education for Very Special Children. Isle of Man: ORCA Publications

Narayanasamy, A., Gates, R. & Swinton, J. (2002). 'Spirituality and learning disability: a qualitative study'. British Journal of Nursing, Volume 11 (14), pp. 948 - 957.

Swinton, J. (2001). 'Building a Church for Strangers: Theology, church and learning disabilities'. Journal of Religion, Disability and Health, Volume 4 (4), pp. 25 - 65.

Swinton, J. (2001) A Space to Listen: Meeting the spiritual needs of people with learning disabilities. London: The Foundation for People with Learning Disabilities.

Swinton, J. (2002). 'Spirituality and the Lives of People With Learning Disabilities'. The Tizard Learning Disability Review, Volume 7 (4), pp. 29-35.

Swinton, J. (2004). Why Are We Here? Meeting the spiritual needs of people with learning disabilities. London: The Foundation for People with Learning Disabilities.

Swinton, J. (2004). No Box to Tick: A booklet for carers on meeting the spiritual needs of people with learning disabilities. London: The Foundation for People with Learning Disabilities.

Swinton, J. (2004). 'The Body of Christ has Down’s Syndrome: Theological reflections on disability, vulnerability and Graceful communities'. Journal of Pastoral Theology.

Swinton, J. (2005). 'Spirituality, Suffering and Palliative Care: A spiritual approach to palliative care with people who have learning disabilities'. S Read & H Brown (eds), in: Palliative care for people with learning disabilities. Quay Books, London, United Kingdom.

Swinton, J. & Mcintosh, E. (2000). 'Persons in relation: The care of persons with learning disabilities'. Theology Today, Volume 57 (2), pp. 175 - 184.

104. Video

Some simple AAC devices can form links to videos such that when a cell is selected a video is played. The video can be played directly or link to some web site such as YouTube (see section on YouTube Below). Videos stored directly on such things as iPads have many advantages such as they will play immediately and will always be available (internet links are not so reliable). However, one drawback is that they take up considerable amounts of storage space and may completely fill the available space if not managed correctly. A further drawback is copyright issues on certain videos whereas this is not a concern if it is an internet link (although it may be if the system where being used to broadcast the video to others).

If you are using video for cause and effect purposes ensure that the video clip is:

- Highly motivational (a BEST POLE);
- Short 15 seconds or less such that access requires frequent/repeated activations
of the system;

If Video is being used in a classroom, it may prove to be a distractor for other Learners and may require that the Learner has to wear earphones and ensure that others cannot see the screen!

If you do not have the video that you need why not download it? Don't know how? Try using one of the new on-line resources that are around such as http://www.zamzar.com Be sure to click on the Download Videos tab and follow the instructions. It's pretty simple and for files under 100 MB it's free. If you are thinking of using the video on an iPad be sure to tell it to convert the file to a .mp4 file format (for the techies out there in cyber land the iPad will play H.264 video up to 720p, 30 frames per second, .m4v, .mp4, and .mov file formats and Motion JPEG (M-JPEG) up to 35 Mbps, 1280 by 720 pixels, 30 frames per second BUT this may change with new releases of future iPads). Of course there are other such services:
http://www.onlinevideoconverter.com/ or http://www.online-convert.com/ and, by the time you read this, there may be many more from which to choose (Type on-line video converter into your search engine and see what pops up!). Some may offer download of bigger files for free. If the video file is over 100MB (and most are) try going here:
http://www.pcworld.com/article/244289/how_to_download_youtube_videos.html

Remember also that your iPad is also a video camera! Here is a nice little guide that you can download:
http://wic.library.upenn.edu/multimedia/lending/iPadRecordVideo.pdf
Simple AAC apps that have video linking capabilities such as 'SimpleAAC' from Unlimiter can link directly to videos captured in this way.

You go for a walk in the woods and you capture several little videos including one of a squirrel you just happen to see. When you get back to school, you can set up a simple AAC page with each cell on the page linking to each of the little videos you took. Then, when the Learner taps a particular cell - Voilà! the video is shown.

If you connect your iPad to a projector using an Apple iPad Dock Connector To VGA Cable Adapter (search on Amazon) which are available for just a few dollars/pounds then the Learner can share his/her experiences from her/his iPad to the big screen.

By the way, just as an aside, liquids and iPads do NOT go together. If a Learner has a problem controlling saliva flow then it may require that some sort of protection is provided. Fisher Price do a great system but it is rather babyish (because it is designed for babies!)
http://www.gottabemobile.com/2012/02/17/protect-your-ipad-and-iphone-from-your-baby-with-apptivity-cases-from-fisher-price/
If this exists then there will be age appropriate equivalents. IF you have tested one and it has proven to be good, please let Talksense know and we will share it will everyone.

A section follows on ideas for the use of videos in simple AAC systems. Some are for educational purposes and some for leisure activities.

105. Video Juke Box

There are a number of sophisticated touch screen electronic devices now entering the market which are relatively inexpensive and can act as a simple (or indeed advanced) communication system, Among these are the iPad, the Windows 8 systems, and android tablets. Depending on the simple AAC system downloaded, it may be possible to link a cell to a video that is either stored on the system or contained on the internet in something like Youtube. It then becomes possible to create video 'jukeboxes': that is, not just links to musical tracks (.mp3 files for example) but to videos of the Learner's favourite stars in action. Everything form 'Bob the builder' and 'Shaun the Sheep' through 'Wheels on the bus' to Katy Perry become available.

Of course, if you provide access to such videos from a simple AAC overlay you should hardly be surprised if the Learner plays them! Some staff may be annoyed by such abilities failing to see the 'bigger picture' (if there is a bigger picture to see) and focusing solely on the repetitive music output. While there is a temptation to remove AAC devices for infringement of the 'peace' or (worse still) deletion of the cell, this is to be avoided. This aspect has been covered in the earlier sections on music and singing and need not be repeated here. If such video links are stored on a particular overlay and overlays hare not linked, a request for it could be added to a generic overlay such that staff might say something like, "This is not a good time to sing now Jane. I will load that overlay for you at the end of the session if you ask me again, OK?"

If a particular video is a BEST for a Learner , it can be used to assess competence with a system by 'hiding' (not as in 'masking and hiding') the active cell amongst others on overlays of increasing complexity, such that the Learner has to:

- search the overlay for the correct location;
- recognise a particular symbol amongst other symbols;
- physically access a specific location without accidentally activating others;
- refrain from touching the screen during payback of the video to avoid closing it.

106. Video Log: Video Diary

Video an event on the Learner's iPad. Link to the event from a cell on an overlay. The Learner can now replay a part or parts of a session, a walk, a trip, an outing or other.

This process could be used to keep a form of video diary of things that happen in a particular week to provide 'historical concepts' (concepts of the recent past) for a Learner (see section on history earlier on this web page). Please note that videos take up a lot of internal memory and therefore, if they are going to kept on the device, they should be short. However, there is another option: upload the video to YouTube (if appropriate and does not betray any personal confidences) - see the section on YouTube for further information. Linking to videos on YouTube will save a lot of storage space but require a good internet link.

Linking to such video events can allow the Learner to literally show parents what s/he did at school today!

107. Video Momentous Moments: Video Record Of Achievement

Once a year, in a previous position I held, there was an award ceremony when Learners who were about to leave this particular part of their educational career would be presented with a video log of their achievements together with a Record Of Achievement in book form which housed certificates and images of momentous moments during the Learners period of time with us. Both were provided in such formats to make them as accessible to the Learners as possible an to give them visual memories of their achievements (however small).

As technology moves on, it is now possible to create a simple AAC overlay with each cell linking to an image or set of images or video depicting momentous events in the Learner's life. Once it was necessary to have a separate video camera to take such images, no longer! With such devices as the iPad, it can be the camera and the simple AAC system.

For school records, particular pages may be exported together with such videos and stored on a Mac,PC or other.

Please note that videos take up a lot of internal memory and therefore, if they are going to kept on the device, they should be short. However, there is another option: upload the video to YouTube (if appropriate and does not betray any personal confidences) - see the section on YouTube for further information. Linking to videos on YouTube will save a lot of storage space but require a good internet link.

Linking to such video events can allow the Learner to literally show parents what s/he did at school today!

108. Voice banking in simple AAC

Voice banking is the technique of saving recordings of a (presently speaking) Learner's voice for future use on an AAC system. At some point in the future, when the Learners voice has diminished to the extent that it is no longer viable as a communication methodology, the recordings can be used in an AAC system to give access to communication once more using the Learner's own voice. As modern simple AAC systems can be saved and backed up to a PC as an exported file, so the Learner could record a set of overlays using his/her own voice which could then be saved ready for future use.

The ideal situation would be that the Learner would come to terms with the system and its language architecture before losing speech, and have taken it out and about to 'field test' it such that s/he was confident it would meet future needs in terms of vocabulary and functionality. However, this is likely to be a rare event. Indeed, there might be significant problems with the very idea of voice banking. The Learner may:

- refuse to cooperate;
- not be aware of the likelihood of losing his/her voice;
- refuse to acknowledge a need to prepare for the future in this way;
- refuse to believe there is an imminent need;
- refuse to believe that his/her voice will deteriorate to the extent that such preparation is required;
- not be of sufficient cognitive level to understand why s/he has to do this.
- not know what to record (if starting with a blank slate) and fail to record appropriate phrases to meet needs in the situation
yet to come;
- find it difficult to predict the future and thus not bank appropriate vocabulary that will meet future needs. If the Learner were
to move homes, for example,some of the vocabulary would reflect an old address and not the new.

See also:

Creer, S.M., Green, P.D., & Cunningham., S.P. (2009), Voice Banking, Advances in Clinical Neuroscience and Rehabilitation, Volume 9 (2),pp. 16 - 18

Green, P. D., Khan, Z., Creer, S. M. & Cunningham, S. P. (2011). Reconstructing the voice of an individual following Laryngectomy. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Volume 27 (1):pp. 61 - 66.

109. Votes and Vetoes

Earlier on this web page we looked at Learners expressing their opinions using simple AAC. If we take that one stage further, it would be possible for Learners to vote on a particular issue and veto it if undesirable using their simple AAC system.

That is not just voting on issues in school but voting (at a later time) in such things as general and local elections (or in mock general elections at school). It should be possible to create overlays that contains the logos of the major parties such that an individual can instruct an enabler on how s/he wishes to vote.

Yes, I realise that there are more choices of parties than are represented in the two smaller overlays depicted below but i wanted to show that it is possible to do this at a simpler level if appropriate as well as a more complex level as shown in the larger of the images.

110. Wait Your Turn!

Learner queuing refers to the still common practice, in special education classrooms, of rows or circles of Learners waiting their turn as the the focus progressively passes down the line.

In a Learner Queuing system the group of Learners are typically arranged in a row, a semi-circle or in a circle and an 'activity' is passed around the group one Learner at a time. For example, each member of the group is encouraged to say 'good morning' or interact with an SSS as a staff member moves along the line. The last member of the group has to wait until all the others have had their individual turn and the first group member (once the interaction with the activity is complete to the satisfaction of the controlling staff member) has to wait until all others have completed the task and the focus moves back to the group dynamic once again. All group members are on task for a short period of time but play the waiting game for a much longer period of time: the more group members the longer the period of waiting. In a Learner Queuing approach only one Learner is active at any one time:

  L1       L2        L3       L4       L5       L6       L7       L8

each Learner becomes active as the focus passes around the group. Even though:

-     staff may be very well intentioned;
-     and the the activity itself may be worthwhile;
-    and very well done...

Learner Queuing is poor practice because of the 'hidden curriculum' aspect; that is, in reality the individuals involved are actually being taught to ... wait. Individual Learners , especially those with special needs, simply cannot spend so much time off task. Some may go to sleep, some may withdraw into themselves, some may focus on other behaviours that they find personally more stimulating (though staff may find such behaviours challenging). Just how much time during a typical day an individual Learner spends waiting is somewhat difficult to ascertain unless there is a time and motion study within the establishment which, by definition, itself affects the outcome (staff may behave differently when they are being observed). If a Learner's IEP has a target that states '<Learner> will learn how to wait appropriately', I am always concerned! It is likely that <Learner> will already be spending a great deal of time waiting!!

The purpose of this website is not just to point out poor practice but to suggest practical alternatives. There are, at least, three possible alternatives to Learner Queuing. These are outlined below. The first is the preferred methodology by Talksense. You may know of others. If you are willing to share alternative methodologies, please get in touch so that I may add other approaches to this section of the C.A.N. page. You may also want to raise issues with the whole of this section. Again, please feel free to get in touch.

Alternative 1: The LAG Approach
The first alternative to Learner Queuing is what may be called the LAG approach where LAG stands for Learner And Group. In this classroom technique a staff member's interactions with a group of Learners (individually) is interspersed with a short whole group activity. Thus, instead of the L1, L2, L3, ... arrangement as seen above, what we now have is:

    L1        G        L2        G        L3       G        L4       G        L5       G...

where G = Group

Here, as you can see, the focus passes from Learner to Learner as before but, in between, there is a short group-based dynamic which maintains cognitive engagement for all participants with the given task. For example, if the session in question was a morning greeting. Learner One would be enabled to say 'good morning' to the group. Following this, and before Learner two was enabled to say 'good morning', the whole group would be enabled/required to say 'good morning' to Learner One. This may be by signing (Makaton, Signalong or other) or through the use of SGDs or some other methodology (indeed, some members of the group may not require AAC). The session dynamic changes: no longer are individual Learners sitting awaiting their turn and, again, waiting after their turn but, rather, only inactive for the time it takes a single Learner to say 'Good Morning' to the group before they are called into action again to respond to each group member's greeting.

Alternative 2: One on One
In the second alternative, individual Learners have one-on-one staff support. The staff member's task is to maintain Learner cognitive engagement while the focus progresses. However, this is easier said than done: how is a staff member to cognitively engage a Learner during a good morning activity, for example, in a meaningful manner while awaiting the Learner's turn and, even if they can do it, how do they do it without disturbing/distracting any other member of the group?

If the Learners are getting on with individual work while the good morning greeting is progressing it is not really true to this alternative but creates a third alternative ...

Alternative 3: Individual work
In this alternative, Learners are actually working on some activity as a group or as individuals. While they are working, they are interrupted to allow a staff member to present a new focus to them one by one. While the Learners are not waiting, interrupting one period of cognitive engagement with another, only to expect the Learner to return to the first cognitive activity is probably not the best of practices!

However, if the shared activity in question is the use of a group Object Of Reference passed around the group then, as each individual is handed the OOR, s/he moves to the new POLE. Thus, there is no waiting post activity. While each Learner takes it in turn to receive the OOR, they can still be working with their one-on-one staff member until the OOR is presented. Personally, I do not favour this approach to the use of OOR.

111. What's So Special About Today?

We have already looked at using simple AAC religiously earlier on this page but there are lots of festivals that do not have strictly not religious origins but are still celebrated nevertheless Such things as Halloween, Bonfire Night, Independence Day in America (national day of mourning of loss of British Sovereignty!), thanksgiving, April fool (covered earlier), valentine's day, mother's day, father's day, New's year's day, birthday, anniversaries, remembrance day, and, recently, the jubilee celebrations ... All of these can have special overlays such that the Learner can be an integral part of the action.

Below are just some of the possible overlays for Halloween. The Learner could be involved in deciding how the pumpkin face should look (happy, sad, bad, mad, ...) and the shapes of the eyes and nose(round, triangle square) and the number of teeth (1, 2, 3, ...) as well as the overall effect (scary ghost, mad vampire, nice face, ...)

112. Where is it?

Children with significant physical impairments may not develop a knowledge of prepositional concepts at the same rate as their able-bodied peers:

"A child who is left sitting all day will not have his natural curiosity stimulated or have the first hand experience upon which cognitive and language development is based" (Cooke, J. & Williams, D. 1985)

"Children with limited mobility, particularly those in wheelchairs, may lack tactile experience and therefore have limited sensory experience which may in turn affect their learning" (Male, J. & Thompson, C. 1985)

"Language comprehension may also be reduced, even though the neurological basis for language acquisition has not been affected. Children with extensive motor disorders will lose a significant part of the natural language teaching that other children have. Children in the pre-lingual period, cry, laugh, take hold of and reach out for objects, make gurgling noises that may resemble words, etc. These are activities that make parents and other adults react and speak to the children, which indirectly leads to language learning. After the children have begun to speak, they develop their language in a similar way by taking part in conversations. They receive comments about what they themselves say and do, and answers to questions about objects and activities they are interested in or wonder about. Children with motor disorders lose out on many of these experiences, and this may lead to reduced language comprehension and less knowledge about the environment." (Von Tetzchner, S. & Martinsen, H. 1992)

If you find it difficult to explore your environment and items in your environment and others do no facilitate this activity then it is likely that you won't get into and under and above and between things, you won't go across, around, about, along, and over. We learn such concepts in the act of doing them. Kids typically get into all sort of positions and fixes but learn in the process. If you are confined to a particular place and the world doesn't come to you, lots of concept may not be sufficiently formed. This is particularly true of the prepositional concepts which typically express relationships between things in time and space. If a Learner has delayed spatial awareness simple AAC can assist in the process of alleviating the situation.

While it is possible to illustrate prepositional concepts in the classroom, it will be more effective if Significant Others are encouraged to help illustrate the individual concepts. This provides the Learner with many experiences of an individual word(s) or concept(s). For example, suppose the vocabulary concerns the prepositional concepts ‘over’, ‘under’, ‘around’. Significant Others can be encouraged to emphasise these words when the Learner is involved in some activity concerning them. Thus, while walking or driving with their son or daughter, parents may point out they are going over a bridge or around a roundabout. Placing the emphasis on the salient word in each phrase as the action is performed:

- ‘Putting your socks on your feet’;
-   ‘Putting the plate on the table’;
-   ‘Sitting on the chair’;
-   ‘Getting on the bus’;
-   ‘On the bridge’;
-   ‘Mum is putting her hat on her head’.
- 'Getting under the umbrella'
- 'Snuggling under the quilt'
- 'The ball has gone under the table'
- 'Let's put this mat under your plate'

"Certain types of language, such as labelling circumscribed objects (e.g. bottle, table, ball), can be grasped easily through illustrations and or imitation. Therefore, no great effort is required to learn these words. By contrast words referring to properties which are not immediately evident require much elaboration for understanding. For example, a word such as ‘top’ is much more abstract than a word such as ‘book’. The word ‘top’ can refer to such physically different things as the ‘top’ of one’s head, the ‘top’ of one’s desk, and the ‘top’ of a building. The word unites these instances only when there is an understanding that ‘top’ refers to the highest point on anything, regardless of how different the ‘anything’ looks. Other examples requiring a similar level of abstraction are time (before, after), direction (underneath, between), relative judgements (warmer, heavier). It is here that an articulate person, be it mother, teacher, or sibling, is required to offer the necessary corroboration or negation of the child’s emerging ideas." (Blank, M. & Soloman, F. 1968)

Understanding prepositions is not straightforward, it should not be assumed (see section on assumption) that the child who can put a cup on a saucer when asks so to do, understands the word / concept 'on'.

"This problem of gratuitous attribution was quite general across the various constructions trained and tested. Sarah learned to construct the appropriate sentence, say 'red on green' versus 'green on red', when shown one coloured card on top of another one, and also to arrange the two cards appropriately in response to such a 'statement' assembled by the trainer. But this skill does not support Premack’s conclusion that Sarah understood prepositions. Since 'on' is not contrasted with other prepositions, such as 'under', it would not be necessary for Sarah to attend to that element at all. For example, she could solve the second version, as Terrace points out, merely by noting which item is mentioned first and placing it on top of the remaining one." (Wallman, J. 1992 page 39)

Typically, cups go on saucers. If I spoke to you in Chinese and asked you to do the same thing, you might look at the items in front of you and figure out that I was asking you to perform some task. What do you do with a cup and a saucer? Why, you put the cup on the saucer. It doesn't follow because you perform the task that you understand Chinese!

It is not enough just to show a Learner a particular concept, it is better if they can actually do it for themselves, be involved in the task. Seeing is not the same as understanding. The experiments by Krech, D., Rosenzweig, M., & Bennett, E. (1960,1963,1964) & Rosenzweig, D., Love, W., & Bennett, E. (1965) in which three groups of infant rats (from the same litter) were raised in different environments, illustrates the point further. The first group was raised with the minimum of stimulation, little light, and no play things. The second group was given maximum stimulation, the Disney Land of rat cages. The third group were raised in conditions similar to the first except that they had a window into the rat cage with maximum stimulation so, although they could not participate in the fun and games, they could watch. Later the brain chemistry of the three groups of rats was examined. The rats raised in the impoverished conditions had 15% fewer glia cells, 15% smaller neurons, impoverished neural fibre structures but, more importantly, each neuron made less interconnections with other neurons than their ‘stimulated’ siblings (Greenough, W. in a later experiment concluded that the ‘stimulated’ rats may have as many as 2000 extra synapses per neuron ‑ see Blakemore, C. 1988 p. 216). The third group, with the window, did not significantly differ from the impoverished group in their neural structure:

Seeing is not the same as experiencing

Consider your own experiences in learning skills (for example, learning computer skills). Would watching someone else demonstrate a program be sufficient? It would be helpful, no doubt, but without experience retention of what was demonstrated would probably be short-lived. Allow the Learner to experience any problematic concepts in as many ways as possible to avoid ambiguity and to reinforce the concept.

Prepositions may be acted out by a Facilitator. Crawling under tables, jumping over chairs, and climbing on tables is all part of the job. No matter to what lengths you are personally prepared to go, ensure that a Learner has multiple experiences of the word or concept in question (Putting the Learner under a blanket and under a box, for example). Avoid giving one experience, as it may be assumed that 'under' should only be used in the specific context of that experience, or that some attribute of the experience is the concept being taught ('under' means blanket, or fun, or darkness). The Facilitator needs to ensure that there will be transference of knowledge and thus as many experiences of under as is possible are recommended. As previously stated, parents and carers (indeed all Significant Others) should be told of and involved in current areas of development such that they can illustrate such concepts at relevant times.

Boxing Clever
Boxing Clever is a technique that can be used with a group of Learners using simple AAC. One Learner is asked to select a position to put a small treat with regard to a box on the table top (in, on, under, behind, ...). It can be said aloud or not (indicated on a symbol sheet) depending on the Learners' stage of development. A second Learner has to 'guess' the position of the treat. If they 'guess' correctly (and they can watch the staff member placing the treat) they get the treat. If a treat is too small, some other object can be used instead, for example - a ball. The treat is given if they can say where the ball is in relation to the box. After a person has a go they get to set the position for the next of the Learners in the group.

While the above examples are good ideas, there is no substitute for the Learner being in the prepositional position. There are lots of things where the Learner can experience 'under': an umbrella, a blanket, an arch made by two standing staff ... and 'over': a mat or other surface place on the floor, a pole, etc.

See Also:

McGee, G., Krantz, P. & McClannahan, L. (1985). The facilitative effects of incidental teaching on preposition use by autistic children,
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Volume 18, pp. 17 - 31

Telleen, S. & Wren, C. (1985). Acquisition of prepositions in language-delayed preschoolers: is intervention effective? British Journal of Communication, Volume 20 (3), pp. 301 - 309, College of Speech Therapists

113. Who is it? Relative terms.

Many years ago, I used to teach in an establishment for young school leavers experiencing some form of disability. I was working with one particular group of Learners when (and I cannot remember how the topic came up) I asked a young lady to tell me about her aunty. She said she was nice and she was kind and she made her laugh. Then I asked the young lady 'why, is he your aunty?' . She did not respond. I could see she was struggling with the way I had phrased the question so I asked it another way, "What is an aunty? What makes that lady your aunty and not me , for example? Could I be your Aunty?". I was told told and that 'aunties are female'. So far so good. So I picked on a female member of staff (we will call her Helen) and said, "Is Helen your aunty?".

"No", was the reply.
"Why not?", I asked.
"She is not aunt", was what I was told.
I asked Helen if she was an aunty. She said 'yes'. So I persisted with the questioning.
"Helen is an aunty. Is she your aunty?"
"No"
"So why is Helen an aunty but not your aunty?"
"Not my aunty"
"Why not?"
The questioning went on a little longer before I was more direct and tried to ask about relationships but it soon became clear that my audience had no concept about what I was talking. No-one had ever explained what an aunty is. Aunty Ann had always been Aunty Ann and everyone took it for granted that the Learner understood why she was Aunty Ann! However, the Learner knew she was called Aunty Ann but did not know why an aunt is an aunt.

This goes back to points made in other sections about Learners not having a full grasp of certain concepts because everyone assumes an understanding (chips come from potatoes, egg from out of shells and the shells from hens). I once was giving a lecture to a group of therapists in a country village. Suddenly one of the therapist let out a loud 'oh my! A chicken.' She had never seen a live chicken in all her twenty something years as she was raised in a city. She had seen chickens in films and pictures and dead ones in the supermarket but never one walking around outside. I could not quite believe that someone could get to such an age without having such experiences but, if she was denied such experiences, then it made it all the more clear that our Learners would also have even more limited experiences of certain things.

In order to address the issue of relations, I began to ask my Learner s if they could bring in family photos so that we could make up a family tree and then put the symbols into the diagram for such things as 'sister' an 'brother' and 'aunty' and 'uncle'. It a like manner it is possible to create a series of overlays that depict the relationships in families.

114. Yes and No

"The writers have found culturally deprived children to be strangely indifferent to the content of verbal utterances while being acutely concerned with the effect that their utterances have on other people. A question that begins with ‘Can you tell’ - or ‘Do you know’ is invariably answered ‘Yes’, often before it is completed. These beginnings are evidently recognized as signals that ‘yes’ is the desired answer. Yes-No questions have to be used with great circumspection in the teaching of these children because the children are so adept at and intent upon ‘reading’ the teacher’s expressions and inflections for clues to the desired response. The children may even succeed in giving correct answers without fully understanding what yes and no mean."
(Bereiter, C. & Engelmann, S. 1966, p. 37)

"Several investigations (HARRIS D. 1978; LIGHT J., COLLIER B., & PARNES P. 1985) have demonstrated that speaking partners tend to engage in communicative exchanges that require the learner simply to confirm or deny the vocal mode user’s statements. This strategy speeds up an interaction, but provides the learner with very limited experience in learning to direct an exchange by steering the topic in a new direction. It also limits opportunities to teach symbol combinations that may be part of the graphic mode system. Furthermore, it limits the amount of time the graphic mode user can practice using his or her augmentative system" (REICHLE J. 1991 p. 152)

"For children who have grown up with answers to questions as their only communication strategy it is difficult to learn to use language in new ways" (Von Tetzchner, S. & Martinsen, H. 1992)

"Multiple factors influence the success of literacy and language learning in the classroom. These influences include ... teacher-student interactions that extend beyond yes/no questioning and encourage students to initiate and sustain interactions." (Erickson, K. & Staples, A. 1995 p. 4)

A closed question is one that may be answered by either ‘yes’ or ‘no’. An open question is open that requires a response other than ‘yes’ or ‘no’:

"Do you want tea?” CLOSED
"What do you want to drink?” OPEN
"Did you watch TV last night?” CLOSED
"What did you watch last night?”                       OPEN
"Did you go shopping at the weekend?” CLOSED
"What did you do at the weekend?” OPEN

"Among users of graphic mode systems, it has been well documented that when a learner’s partner produces an utterance to which the learner fails to respond, the partner will frequently alter his or her interactional style and ask a series of questions that can be answered "yes” or "no”... There is evidence to suggest that many users of augmentative systems tend to match specific classes of communicative opportunities with the response that is the least physically demanding to perform. Second, the learner may lack sufficient vocabulary to provide the flexibility required to generate an answer. When the conversational load begins to fall too heavily on the verbal mode participant, he or she may begin to shorten periods of interaction with the augmentative system user, or even avoid interactions (REICHLE J. 1988). The burden of carrying the interaction cannot be borne inordinately by one member of the dyad. If this happens, the quality, if not the quantity, of the interactions may be jeopardized." (Reichle, J. 1991, pp. 150-152)

This section of this web page therefore deals with the dangers of over-use of the closed question format and offers alternative suggestions. In some instances, the ability to provide a yes/no response is a positive step forward and should not be devalued or stopped (see for example Keenan, J. & Barnhart, K. 1993).

It may be assumed that the closed question format is faster and more effective than its open equivalent but this is not necessarily the case. A 'yes' response does not mean that there is comprehension and the tutor may be fooled into proceeding on this basis. We have all had experience of using ‘yes’ in response to a situation in which our understanding is compromised. For example - You are sitting next to a perfect stranger on a bus. He begins to talk. You do not understand his words because of his accent. You say "I’m sorry, I didn't quite catch that.” He repeats the message. Again, you find his accent and the message incomprehensible. What do you do? Many people will smile and nod their head and try to bluff it. If the stranger smiles everything is assumed to be OK. If he frowns we may change our response. Our ‘yes’ response here does not confirm understanding.

The closed question format is commonplace. Studies have suggested that classroom talk is dominated by teachers’ questions and these are often of the closed type whereas the open question format would have had many advantages (Nuthall, G. & Church, J. 1973; Blank, M., Rose, S., & Berlin, L. 1978; Redfield, D. & Rousseau, E. 1981;):

"Observations of teacher questions addressed to children of widely different ages and in a variety of disciplines have led to the conclusion that teacher questions are more often of the ‘closed’ type with known right answers. The responses to such questions by pupils are likely to be terse and simply correct or incorrect. When pupils answer a teacher’s questions, they usually say no more and stop talking. Consequently, where such specific, closed questions are frequent, children will say little. ... Frequent, specific questions tend to generate relatively silent children and to inhibit any discussion between them. Telling children things, giving an opinion, view, speculation or idea, stimulates more talk, questions and ideas from pupils and generates discussion between them. If all this sounds obvious, then explain why so many studies have found that classroom talk is dominated by teacher questions." (Wood, D. 1988 pp. 142 - 143)

Further, people who use AAC systems are asked many more yes or no questions than their vocal peers (Sutton, A. 1982; Harris, D. 1978; Light, J., Collier, B., & Parnes, P. 1985; Basil, C. 1986).

"For example, adults who interact with users of augmentative systems often over-use yes/no questions. These interactions are problematic for several reasons. First they place the learner in the role of a responder (Light, J., Collier, B., & Parnes, P. 1985). The learner is taught to wait until a specific question is asked before responding. As a result, users of augmentative or alternative systems tend to be poor initiators of interactions (LIGHT et al. 1985) Another adverse consequence of the over-use of yes/no questions is the limited vocabulary it demands". (Reichle, J. 1991a)

It may be assumed that there is a 50% chance of being correct when responding to a closed question such as ‘Is Paris the capital of France?’ My own experience in this area suggests that, if a person learns to respond to any closed question with "yes”, s/he will be correct a far greater proportion of the time. Approximately 90% of closed questions require a 'yes' response. That is, when people frame closed questions the response that is typically required is ‘yes’.

Children are eager to please. They soon learn to give the expected response to an adult who is asking them a question. Nodding the head is a very good strategy. It tends to please people. It does not follow, however, that the child understands the question or knows the answer. Be wary.

The closed question is not always faster or more efficient because an assumption of understanding based on a yes or no response may be misleading. Progression to higher levels of learning should always be based on a knowledge that all the important concepts previously taught have been understood. The closed question format does not guarantee this.

The person responding with the yes or no answer is not necessary being untruthful. The person may have ‘got hold of the wrong end of the stick’. Consider this example. I hold an empty glass in my hand. I tell you this is an example of the Senojian word ‘psarg’. You understand that ‘psarg’ is Senojian for glass. I pick up another glass and hold it firmly in my hand. I ask you if this is ‘psarg’ and you respond with a nod of the head. I smile. I am pleased you have understood. However, we are both wrong. ‘Psarg’ means ‘to hold tightly’. You were not trying to mislead me when you gave the positive response. I misled myself.

The closed question format does not encourage the use of an AAC system. The majority of people with a severe communication impairment have a positive yes or no response. There will be no need for them to use an AAC system if all communication interactions are framed as yes or no questions. The closed question format is typically used with people who are passive. It is unclear whether passivity promotes the use of the closed question format or the closed question format promotes passivity. Perhaps the relationship is mutually reinforcing and is a vicious circle.

Open questions should be used whenever possible because they:

- demand an AAC response;
-   allow a greater certainty of understanding;
-   help promote an active rather than a passive communication style.

The closed question is faster when time is pressing and when we can be positive that a person understands. A person who is already a proficient AAC user and normally spontaneously requests tea (for example) to drink would not always need to be asked "What do you want to drink?” but simply "Would you like some tea?”

Communication Continuum
There is a communication continuum which is marked by a spontaneous remark at one end (You are walking through town and a person says "I fancy a cup of tea”) and parroting at the other (You are walking through town and you wonder if the person with you would like a cup of tea. You say "Say ‘I want a drink’ on your nice machine”). In between these extremes are two further elicited forms. The first is elicited contextually (You are walking past McDonald’s and say "I fancy a drink”) the second is elicited via a verbal prompt (You are walking through town and fancy a drink you turn to the user and ask "Would you like to take a break for a drink?”).

Parroting forms the least desirable technique:

"Speech is never an end in itself, it is always a means to an end. We use it to convey meaning, purpose and to bring results. To attempt to teach a child ‘parrot fashion’ would be to miss the point." (Jeffree, D. & McConkey, R. 1976)

While parroting forms the least desirable technique within the communication continuum, it should be noted that it is a technique used, in certain circumstances, by parents (and others) with children. For example, if a child asks for an item and forgets his or her manners parents will say:
"When you say please.”

Although initially the child is told to say the word itself, the direct prompts soon fade:

"What’s the ‘pl’ word?”
"Haven’t you forgotten to say something?”
"When you ask properly.”

Eventually, the child may be ignored until she or he asks in a socially acceptable manner.

Meal time with the Adams Family (From the feature film ‘The Adams Family’):
Wednesday Adams: "May I have the salt?”
  Morticia Adams: "What do we say?”
  Wednesday Adams: "NOW !!”

The verbal prompt can be sub-classified into seven categories:

The first is an open ended question:
"What would you like to do?” RESPONSE "Stop for a drink”
"What would you like to drink?” RESPONSE "Tea please”

The second is a multi choice format in which the AAC user is active:
"What would you like to drink - tea, coffee, or a milkshake?”   RESPONSE "Milkshake please.”

The third is a variation on the second - the alternative:
"What do you want tea or coffee?” RESPONSE "Coffee please.”

Multi choice differs from the alternative option only in the number of choices presented. For a person with severe learning difficulties a smaller range of choices is more appropriate. The alternative option is a choice of two.

The fourth is a multi choice in which the questioner is active:
"What do you want to drink? There’s tea, coffee, or you could have milkshake. Do you want tea?” (Person shakes head)
"Coffee?” (Person shakes head)
"A milkshake then?” (Person nods head)

The fifth is an alternative choice in which the questioner is active:
"What do you want to drink? There’s tea or coffee? Do you want tea?” (Shakes head)
"Coffee?” (Nods head)

The sixth is a closed question
"Do you want coffee?” (Nods head)

Finally there is Hobson’s choice. No choice at all.
"I’ve got you your tea just the way you like it!”   No questions asked.

One of the goals of AAC is to give the user the skills and the confidence to chat spontaneously. However, if a verbal prompt is required (and initially it is likely that there will be many) then it should begin at the left (as shown on the chart illustrated below) of the elicited verbal prompt continuum:

"What would you like to drink?”

If there is no response, it may be repeated: Gaining eye contact
"Sam, what would you like to drink?”

If there is still no response, move one step down the continuum. List the options:
"Well there’s tea, there’s coffee, there’s milkshake, and there’s juice. Which would you like?”
(If this is an overload of choice consider the alternative option)

Still no response? Move one step down the continuum:
"There’s tea, coffee, or a milkshake. Would you like tea? Coffee? A milkshake then?”

No response? Oh dear! Then use the closed format:
"Jenny would you like a chocolate milkshake?”

No response! This is serious:
"Darn it Jenny, I’ll get you a glass of water.”

Note: the two strategies used to help promote a Learner response: the selective use of a person’s name to focus attention and gaining eye contact.

It is unlikely that you will need to move so far down the continuum. However, the option is there should any particular strategy fail. The idea is not to allow the Learner to fail but to provide the maximum amount of choice and opportunity for active communication skills. Of course, this assumes that the Learner knows about the drinks and has been taught where they are located on the AAC system.

While it is likely that, in the early stages of teaching, much use will be made of elicited verbal prompts, they should not be the only form of communication strategy used:

"... it is therefore important that the communication does not become responsive, i.e. that the individual answers only when spoken to by others or takes the ‘initiative’ after being urged to do so. Even though it is unintentional on the part of the person who plans the training, the teaching may reinforce a child’s dependence." (Von Tetzchner, S. & Martinsen, H. 1992)

The section above does not make reference to physical prompting. This was intentional. Verbal and physical prompts, however, may be used at any point within the communication continuum to help people to achieve a desired response. All prompts should be gradually faded (see section on prompting on this we page).

115. You Tube Link Up!

With the SimpleAAC app for the iPad from Unlimiter it is possible to link directly to a specific video featured within YouTube. Providing that there is an internet link and a strong and fast connection, activating a cell set up in this way can play any specific video required. The Learner is limited to the specific video only and, as such, cannot suddenly start surfing the web or moving around the YouTube site. The possibilities for education and entertainment are enormous! Links to good quality educational materials can be made such that the Learner can watch them at his/her leisure at a time of his/her choosing.

Learners who require switch access may use the scanning option to watch specific videos at anything from a single cell overlay (SSS) to a 20 cell page (5 x 4).

While some areas have banned YouTube in schools, it should be noted that a link to a YouTube video is not a link to YouTube! Within the 'SimpleAAC' App from Unlimiter (for example), the link to a Youtube video can ONLY pay the linked video. If the Learner stops the video (by touching the screen) s/he does NOT remain in YouTube but is returned back to the iPad screen. In this way, there is NO way that the Learner can use the system to surf YouTube: a link is to a specific video and nothing else.

If a link is being made to a YouTube video, it should be understood that:

- A bad signal will mean that the video will be delayed or not appear at all;
- If the Learner does not have a wireless connection then Pads will not function in this way;
- If the Learner does not have 24 hour internet access then the cell will not function at all times of the day;
- If the Learner does not have a Broadband connection at home the system may not work as it does in school;
- When YouTube is busy there might be a delay in running in video;
- Such links should NOT be used for cause and effect tuition;
- Staff must be responsible for any link that they make and therefore should watch the entire video the whole way through before
making any link such that it has been checked for any inappropriate content;
- The link is to a single YouTube video and nothing else.

As there are millions of videos on YouTube there is a vast amount of good educational material among the not so useful material. It is also possible to upload your own videos for the Learner to access and so almost anything is possible as a link even if it is not already available.

116. Zones of Awareness

IN DEVELOPMENT

Zones of Awareness are virtual, concentric, four-dimensional, spacetime bubbles that surround a specific Learner. As they are comprised of spacetime they exist in both space and time having both spatial and temporal components. Each bubble fits one inside the other although they are not equidistant. Although they are referred to here as bubbles or spheres, they may take any shape as they may be constrained within a particular area (for example, a room which is a cuboid).

There are five zones:

Zone 1: Body and Mind
Self Awareness: Body Proprioception. The bubble is constrained inside the human form.

Zone 2: Personal Space
Based on the work of Heine Hediger involving animal proxemics, the importance of personal space for humans was probably first outlined by Edward T. Hall in his book 'The Hidden Dimension' (1966 Anchor Books), although the notion of 'propinquity' was previously explored by Festinger et al in the early 1950s (Festinger, L. Schachter, S. and Back, K. W., 1950,Social Pressures in Informal Groups: A Study of Human Factors in Housing, New York: Harper). Hall (1966 op. cit.) described four distinct areas of personal space associated with social interaction: intimate space (0-1.5 feet), casual personal space (1.5-4 feet), social consultant space (4-12 feet), and public space (12 feet and beyond).

Personal space has been defined as "an area with invisible boundaries surrounding a person's body into which intruders may not come" (Sommer 1979, Personal space. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall). Personal space may extend to the limits of zone three and, for some, may even go beyond. Personal space may extend forward from some feet but is likely not to extend to the same distance in reverse: i.e. behind the individual (although a person walking alone at night might feel threatened by footsteps at the rear even at some distance). Thus, although shown as perfect circles in the diagram, zones of awareness may be quite irregular in shape and may actually change form in different contexts and at different times of the day.

Personal space has an interpersonal and interobjectional (as in a relationship to objects) aspect: it is not a fixed boundary for everyone and everything. There may be some people that evoke strong emotions and whose presence cannot be tolerated even in zone 4 when, normally the individual's personal space is set at zone 2. It may also be that you cannot tolerate spiders (or even the knowledge of spiders) in zone 4 but are perfectly happy with a cockroach (and likewise for some particular inanimate object). However, there is a positive side to such reactions: as you have to be aware to react, a reactions lets observers know that an individual is aware of (at least some) items in zone four.

In the Special Education Environment, staff may be required to enter individual personal space much more frequently than would be typical in a state school for example. However, no matter how many times a staff member has to enter an individual's personal space in the course of his/her work, s/he must never take the situation for granted. It should always be assumed that the individual Learner has the right to refuse a staff member entry into their space. Thus, staff should always enter with this in mind and look for cues that an individual is permitting the 'entry' and, equally, cues that suggest the individual is unhappy with their presence. To this end, it is important that staff members enter personal space within the individual's immediate sensory zone of awareness. Creeping up from behind is not an acceptable approach. If a staff member is going to push an individual in a wheelchair, for example, s/he should approach from the front and 'seek permission' before moving to the rear. No staff member should approach from behind, take hold on the handles of a wheelchair and begin to move forward. This should be viewed as personal abuse. Likewise, reaching over from behind a Learner while pushing a wheelchair is not an acceptable strategy even if he individual has given staff' 'permission' to push. If something needs to be sorted, apply the brakes and move to the Learner's Primary Zone of Sensory Awareness and 'seek permission' before performing some necessary task.

Zone 3: Exploratory Zone
a: Immediate Exploratory Zone
b: Orientational Exploratory Zone

Zone 4: Bounded Environment
a: Sensory Bounds (Impairment and Boundaries)
b: Physical Bounds (Walls and Obstructions)

Zone 5: Beyond the Bounded Environment
Learner awareness of the world beyond the bounded environment. The role that language plays

The greater the level of cognitive impairment the more the need to work within the lower numbered zones

Return To Top of Page

Click on the symbol left to return to the top of this page