Passivity & Learned Helplessness
"All things come to those who wait." (FRENCH PROVERB)
"The risks of professional domination are significant: encouraging Alearned helplessness” (SELIGMAN M. 1984); increasing a
learner’s passivity (HOOKER C. 1976); and creating problems associated with learner compliance and satisfaction."
(SMITH-LEWIS M. & FORD A. 1987)
"These learners either showed no interest in their environments or were able to participate in the environment without engaging in
communicative behaviour. This condition has been referred to as learned helplessness." (REICHLE J. 1991a)
"The dependence associated with language learning is related to the degree of passivity and dependence on others found in all
groups in need of augmentative communication. People who belong to the expressive language group share the characteristic that,
in the majority of situations and especially with regard to self expression, they have been dependent on other people helping them.
This antecedent creates habits and ways of adapting to communication that may be difficult to alter when one attempts to give
them new means of expressing themselves." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
"The goal of any communication system is to increase an individual’s ability to communicate more effectively and efficiently.
Typically those who rely on augmentative communication systems communicate at slower rates and with restrictive vocabulary
sets. The response by their speaking communication partners is to dominate the conversation by initiating, setting the topic,
asking yes/no questions, not pausing long enough to allow the augmentative communicator to respond and closing the
conversation. The augmentative communicator then may assume a very passive role in the conversation with reduced social
experiences and reduced motivation to use the communication system." (MORRIS K. & NEWMAN K. 1993 page 85)
"The counsellor’s task in the former situation of ‘learned helplessness’ is an extremely difficult one. I have to confess that unless
such people have a reason to be dissatisfied with a life-long dependent position I have not yet found ways of reducing the threat of
a real change on this dimension. Sometimes, however, the dependency is less widespread and areas may be found where they
are willing and able to stand on their own two feet. Someone who concedes all conversations to a partner when in company may
speak up at work or when responsible for children." (DALTON P. 1994 page 58)
"AAC users have been described to varying degrees as passive participants who respond when specifically engaged but rarely
initiate conversation." (HOAG L., BEDROSIAN J., JOHNSON D., MOLINEUX B. 1994)
"Typically, aided speakers have been found to be passive responders who contribute significantly less to the conversational
exchange. They exhibit a limited range of communicative functions and rely to a greater extent than do their speaking partners on
nonverbal communicative behaviour (CALCULATOR S. & DOLLAGHAN C. 1982; CULP D. 1982). They produce a high proportion of
yes/no responses and other brief, low-information responses (CULP D. 1982; HARRIS D. 1982; LIGHT J., McNAUGHTON D., &
PARNES P. 1985). In their interactions with aided speakers, speaking partners tend to dominate the conversation. They initiate
topics more frequently, ask a high proportion of yes/no and forced choice questions, and occupy more of the conversational space
(BUZOLICH M. 1984; CALCULATOR S. & DOLLAGHAN C. 1982; COLQUHOUN A. 1982; HARRIS D. 1982; LIGHT J.,
McNAUGHTON D., & PARNES P. 1985)." (BUZOLICH M. & LUNGER J. 1995)
Passivity is commonplace amongst people with a severe communication impairment. In a study by Sweeney (SWEENEY L. 1991) 42 out of 50 users of AAC showed some level of learned helplessness when interacting with one or more significant others. The more severe the communication impairment the greater the degree of helplessness. It would appear that, the development of an individual’s ability to communicate also effects an improvement in an individual’s desire to act independently. The factors that are involved in creating an atmosphere that is supportive of communication are also the factors that tend to demand more interactive skills of an individual. The relationship is reciprocal: greater communicative ability may lead to greater independence and greater independence may lead to greater communicative ability. However, prevention is better than cure: the role of communication in the avoidance of personal passivity should be stressed:
"Without an effective means of communication during childhood development of autonomy, exploratory/experiential opportunity,
and relative strength of self-image/esteem will be compromised." (SWEENEY L. 1993)
A STORY: Once upon a time a teenage boy was a student of an Indian Guru. The boy came to the Guru one day to tell him that he had found a butterfly cocoon. He was very excited about it. The Guru advised the boy to watch the cocoon and, when the butterfly started to hatch out, to continue to study and watch but on no account to touch the butterfly. The boy went home and kept an eye on his cocoon for a long time. Finally, the butterfly started to crack the shell. The boy watched fascinated, as slowly the first parts of the butterfly inched their way out of the cocoon. As the boy continued to watch, the butterfly continued in its struggle to free itself from its shell making the hole larger and larger such that more of its body was beginning to emerge. Finally, the boy could no longer stand the waiting and very gently reached in and took hold of the butterfly to help it from its cocoon. The butterfly fluttered up towards the ceiling but suddenly fell onto the floor. The butterfly could not fly. The boy was heartbroken and ran back to the Guru with tears in his eyes and told him his story. Upon hearing it the Guru said that when he helped he also hindered as he had denied the butterfly the opportunity to strengthen its wings in its struggle.
APROGRAMMES AREN’T PAPER. THEY ARE PEOPLE”
However well written, structured, or sound a programme of work and study may be, without the right attitude of the people who have to implement the strategies developed, it will be doomed to failure. It is one of the facilitator’s primary roles to ensure the correct attitude and understanding of all significant others. It is the attitudes, knowledge, understanding, and abilities of significant others that will contribute most to the success (or failure) of the cognitive and linguistic development of the user. Candappa and Burgess (1989) have shown how the perceptions and attitudes of significant others play a primary role in the normalisation of people with a cognitive impairment. They argue:
"Our own study, ... strongly suggests that addressing the values and perceptions of carers is one of the primary tasks of
normalisation." (CANDAPPA M. & BURGESS R. 1989)
This is supported by SWEENEY (1993):
"All children are dependent upon adult caretakers for fulfilment of their physical and emotional needs. In the process of becoming
autonomous, children explore and test their world and begin signalling their growing independence to caretakers through physical
actions and spoken messages. If provided with an adequate climate for growth, an increasingly solid foundation for independence in
adult life will be formed. However, for children with severe communication and/or physical limitations this process of self growth
may be overlooked or suppressed. Because many children experiencing the aforementioned challenges are not able to signal their
readiness for exploration or independence in traditional ways, parents and other caretakers (e.g. professional service providers,
educators, etc.) are inclined to continue to act as direct or indirect agents for fulfilling the child’s needs. When later provided with
adequate means to express, query, or explore, (e.g. assistive technology) the child may persist in a more passive state due to
learned helplessness or learned dependency." (SWEENEY L. 1993)
For communication users to be successful, they have to have a desire to communicate. The very institutionalisation of some settings may, however, reinforce user passivity. Only when there is a change in institutional practices, reflected through the attitudes of the staff, will any progress be made. A person for whom all needs are provided (according to a timetable) will find it difficult to put communication to positive use. It may only be through the creation of anomaly, of discord in the daily routine, that the need for communication is created. The normalisation principle may provide just such anomaly and discord creating the desire to communicate in some users (or, at least, allowing those with the responsibility for this process to see the urgency for the development of communication skills).
"...but to consider the part played by speech in all this. The more a learner controls his own language strategies, and the more he
is enabled to think aloud, the more he can take responsibility for formulating explanatory hypotheses and evaluating them. It is not
easy to make this possible in a typical lesson: my contention at this point is that ... pupils ... are capable of this if they are placed
in a social context which supports it." (BARNES D. 1976)
Change is not easy. However, it will be made more difficult if the primary facilitator lacks belief in the potential of the user, the staff, the system and perhaps, most importantly, belief in his or herself (See SELIGMAN M. 1992). A positive outgoing character, committed to alternative communication and the benefits it can bring, may be more important than the quality of the system being used. Sheer guts and determination coupled with a weaker system will triumph over the best system coupled with indolence and apathy.
"The risks of professional domination are significant: encouraging Alearned helplessness” (SELIGMAN M. 1984); increasing a
learner’s passivity (HOOKER C. 1976); and creating problems associated with learner compliance and satisfaction."
(SMITH-LEWIS M. & FORD A. 1987)
"These learners either showed no interest in their environments or were able to participate in the environment without engaging in
communicative behaviour. This condition has been referred to as learned helplessness." (REICHLE J. 1991a)
"The dependence associated with language learning is related to the degree of passivity and dependence on others found in all
groups in need of augmentative communication. People who belong to the expressive language group share the characteristic that,
in the majority of situations and especially with regard to self expression, they have been dependent on other people helping them.
This antecedent creates habits and ways of adapting to communication that may be difficult to alter when one attempts to give
them new means of expressing themselves." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
"The goal of any communication system is to increase an individual’s ability to communicate more effectively and efficiently.
Typically those who rely on augmentative communication systems communicate at slower rates and with restrictive vocabulary
sets. The response by their speaking communication partners is to dominate the conversation by initiating, setting the topic,
asking yes/no questions, not pausing long enough to allow the augmentative communicator to respond and closing the
conversation. The augmentative communicator then may assume a very passive role in the conversation with reduced social
experiences and reduced motivation to use the communication system." (MORRIS K. & NEWMAN K. 1993 page 85)
"The counsellor’s task in the former situation of ‘learned helplessness’ is an extremely difficult one. I have to confess that unless
such people have a reason to be dissatisfied with a life-long dependent position I have not yet found ways of reducing the threat of
a real change on this dimension. Sometimes, however, the dependency is less widespread and areas may be found where they
are willing and able to stand on their own two feet. Someone who concedes all conversations to a partner when in company may
speak up at work or when responsible for children." (DALTON P. 1994 page 58)
"AAC users have been described to varying degrees as passive participants who respond when specifically engaged but rarely
initiate conversation." (HOAG L., BEDROSIAN J., JOHNSON D., MOLINEUX B. 1994)
"Typically, aided speakers have been found to be passive responders who contribute significantly less to the conversational
exchange. They exhibit a limited range of communicative functions and rely to a greater extent than do their speaking partners on
nonverbal communicative behaviour (CALCULATOR S. & DOLLAGHAN C. 1982; CULP D. 1982). They produce a high proportion of
yes/no responses and other brief, low-information responses (CULP D. 1982; HARRIS D. 1982; LIGHT J., McNAUGHTON D., &
PARNES P. 1985). In their interactions with aided speakers, speaking partners tend to dominate the conversation. They initiate
topics more frequently, ask a high proportion of yes/no and forced choice questions, and occupy more of the conversational space
(BUZOLICH M. 1984; CALCULATOR S. & DOLLAGHAN C. 1982; COLQUHOUN A. 1982; HARRIS D. 1982; LIGHT J.,
McNAUGHTON D., & PARNES P. 1985)." (BUZOLICH M. & LUNGER J. 1995)
Passivity is commonplace amongst people with a severe communication impairment. In a study by Sweeney (SWEENEY L. 1991) 42 out of 50 users of AAC showed some level of learned helplessness when interacting with one or more significant others. The more severe the communication impairment the greater the degree of helplessness. It would appear that, the development of an individual’s ability to communicate also effects an improvement in an individual’s desire to act independently. The factors that are involved in creating an atmosphere that is supportive of communication are also the factors that tend to demand more interactive skills of an individual. The relationship is reciprocal: greater communicative ability may lead to greater independence and greater independence may lead to greater communicative ability. However, prevention is better than cure: the role of communication in the avoidance of personal passivity should be stressed:
"Without an effective means of communication during childhood development of autonomy, exploratory/experiential opportunity,
and relative strength of self-image/esteem will be compromised." (SWEENEY L. 1993)
A STORY: Once upon a time a teenage boy was a student of an Indian Guru. The boy came to the Guru one day to tell him that he had found a butterfly cocoon. He was very excited about it. The Guru advised the boy to watch the cocoon and, when the butterfly started to hatch out, to continue to study and watch but on no account to touch the butterfly. The boy went home and kept an eye on his cocoon for a long time. Finally, the butterfly started to crack the shell. The boy watched fascinated, as slowly the first parts of the butterfly inched their way out of the cocoon. As the boy continued to watch, the butterfly continued in its struggle to free itself from its shell making the hole larger and larger such that more of its body was beginning to emerge. Finally, the boy could no longer stand the waiting and very gently reached in and took hold of the butterfly to help it from its cocoon. The butterfly fluttered up towards the ceiling but suddenly fell onto the floor. The butterfly could not fly. The boy was heartbroken and ran back to the Guru with tears in his eyes and told him his story. Upon hearing it the Guru said that when he helped he also hindered as he had denied the butterfly the opportunity to strengthen its wings in its struggle.
APROGRAMMES AREN’T PAPER. THEY ARE PEOPLE”
However well written, structured, or sound a programme of work and study may be, without the right attitude of the people who have to implement the strategies developed, it will be doomed to failure. It is one of the facilitator’s primary roles to ensure the correct attitude and understanding of all significant others. It is the attitudes, knowledge, understanding, and abilities of significant others that will contribute most to the success (or failure) of the cognitive and linguistic development of the user. Candappa and Burgess (1989) have shown how the perceptions and attitudes of significant others play a primary role in the normalisation of people with a cognitive impairment. They argue:
"Our own study, ... strongly suggests that addressing the values and perceptions of carers is one of the primary tasks of
normalisation." (CANDAPPA M. & BURGESS R. 1989)
This is supported by SWEENEY (1993):
"All children are dependent upon adult caretakers for fulfilment of their physical and emotional needs. In the process of becoming
autonomous, children explore and test their world and begin signalling their growing independence to caretakers through physical
actions and spoken messages. If provided with an adequate climate for growth, an increasingly solid foundation for independence in
adult life will be formed. However, for children with severe communication and/or physical limitations this process of self growth
may be overlooked or suppressed. Because many children experiencing the aforementioned challenges are not able to signal their
readiness for exploration or independence in traditional ways, parents and other caretakers (e.g. professional service providers,
educators, etc.) are inclined to continue to act as direct or indirect agents for fulfilling the child’s needs. When later provided with
adequate means to express, query, or explore, (e.g. assistive technology) the child may persist in a more passive state due to
learned helplessness or learned dependency." (SWEENEY L. 1993)
For communication users to be successful, they have to have a desire to communicate. The very institutionalisation of some settings may, however, reinforce user passivity. Only when there is a change in institutional practices, reflected through the attitudes of the staff, will any progress be made. A person for whom all needs are provided (according to a timetable) will find it difficult to put communication to positive use. It may only be through the creation of anomaly, of discord in the daily routine, that the need for communication is created. The normalisation principle may provide just such anomaly and discord creating the desire to communicate in some users (or, at least, allowing those with the responsibility for this process to see the urgency for the development of communication skills).
"...but to consider the part played by speech in all this. The more a learner controls his own language strategies, and the more he
is enabled to think aloud, the more he can take responsibility for formulating explanatory hypotheses and evaluating them. It is not
easy to make this possible in a typical lesson: my contention at this point is that ... pupils ... are capable of this if they are placed
in a social context which supports it." (BARNES D. 1976)
Change is not easy. However, it will be made more difficult if the primary facilitator lacks belief in the potential of the user, the staff, the system and perhaps, most importantly, belief in his or herself (See SELIGMAN M. 1992). A positive outgoing character, committed to alternative communication and the benefits it can bring, may be more important than the quality of the system being used. Sheer guts and determination coupled with a weaker system will triumph over the best system coupled with indolence and apathy.
PASSIVE 2 - Task & Discussion Sheet
Uncover the information section. Allow staff time to study the definition of passivity. Give further explanations and examples if necessary. Uncover the Tasks. Allow time (5 - 10 minutes is reasonable) to complete the tasks. Uncover the Discussion section. Work through the points you consider relevant. Do the staff know any passive people? Do they know of people who have some passive tendencies? What are the contributory factors? Is it possible that our efforts to help promote passivity unintentionally?
Is it possible to change passivity into activity? What suggestions do people have? Should we attempt to change every aspect of a passive person’s routine or should this be a gradual process? Is time an excuse for doing things ‘for’ a person and not ‘with’ the person? If time is an issue how can we address it? Is there an inevitability about institutionalised care that creates the passive person? If not what can and should be done?
Discuss Neil Postman’s quote. Is it true? If so, why? What can be done? The word period in the quote means a ‘full stop’. The pupils gradually become unquestioning, waiting to be fed information and not actively seeking it. Other meanings of period are a period of time or the female monthly cycle. What different interpretations and impressions do these create of the quote? What does all this have to do with AAC? Make a list of the connections that people suggest. None is to be considered too silly. Brain-storm in a De Bonian fashion. From this checklist may come many ideas about measures to combat passivity.
Is it possible to change passivity into activity? What suggestions do people have? Should we attempt to change every aspect of a passive person’s routine or should this be a gradual process? Is time an excuse for doing things ‘for’ a person and not ‘with’ the person? If time is an issue how can we address it? Is there an inevitability about institutionalised care that creates the passive person? If not what can and should be done?
Discuss Neil Postman’s quote. Is it true? If so, why? What can be done? The word period in the quote means a ‘full stop’. The pupils gradually become unquestioning, waiting to be fed information and not actively seeking it. Other meanings of period are a period of time or the female monthly cycle. What different interpretations and impressions do these create of the quote? What does all this have to do with AAC? Make a list of the connections that people suggest. None is to be considered too silly. Brain-storm in a De Bonian fashion. From this checklist may come many ideas about measures to combat passivity.
PASSIVE 3 - Create Active Actions
"... many adult AAC users may unconsciously choose to be passive." (MERCHEN M. 1990)~
"Many users of augmentative communicative systems have learned to refrain from independently engaging in regular daily activities
because they have received assistance in virtually every aspect of their life." (REICHLE J. 1991 p. 151) (See also SELIGMAN M.
1975; GUESS D., BENSON H., & SIEGEL-CAUSEY E., 1985)
"For children who grow up with motor disorders, the difficulties they experience in moving and speaking and the influence from their
environment both contribute to the development of a passive style. These children often place great demands on their parents.
Training, feeding and washing take up a lot of time, and there are few activities that the children and their parents can take part in
together. Even when the children are small, their parents consider them to be happiest when they are passive. AShe’s as quiet as
an angel”, and, AShe is so good”, are typical remarks made by mothers about their small children with cerebral palsy."
(VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992) (See also SHERE B. & KASTENBAUM R. 1966)
The cartoon makes the point that passive children grow into passive adults. There are many reasons for doing things for children who are capable of doing them for themselves:
- guilt;
- lack of time;
- wanting to help;
- a belief that a disability equates with inability.
There are also many reasons for the growth of passivity:
- failure to see the long-term consequences of short-term actions
(What does it matter if I help a little?);
- the use of closed rather than open questions;
- failure to involve;
- lack of options;
- lack of choice;
- immobility;
- failure to present experience of the world;
- failure to realise that whole sections of standard patterns of language acquisition are
being missed;
- failure to check on conceptual development.
The list goes on and on. How are we going to tackle this issue?
A suggestion is to identify a situation in which a person is presently inactive and selectively modify it so that the person is gradually empowered. The situation chosen must be non-life threatening. Do not hold back food or drink, for example, until a person is forced to ask for it. Our concern is for empowerment through communication skills although other skills come into play. Take the situation in the cartoon. What should be modified? How would staff tackle this situation in order to empower Timmy?
First ensure that whatever happens Timmy has a future opportunity to watch his favourite programme. Get a person secretly to video it for him although he should not be allowed to watch it immediately regardless of the outcome because he will simply learn that ‘all things come to he who waits’. Rather, make the viewing of the ‘missed’ programme contingent upon future non-passive behaviour (I will return to this later).
Timmy cannot turn on the television himself. However, he would be able to with the aid of an environmental control (he may even be able to manage the tv’s own remote control system). With such a system, he can not only switch it on but turn it off, change channels, turn the volume up or down, etc. Start by attempting to change only this aspect of the scenario. The functions to control the television are stored into the communicator and he controls the television set through his AAC system. If it is a low-tech system there are a number of remote control devices on the market that can be operated by a single or dual switch, or with a keyguard by a button.
If empowerment through environmental control is our initial goal then we should not complicate it by trying to do too much too soon. One thing at a time. Small steps are more likely to succeed. It may be necessary to break this task (task analysis) down into smaller units and work on a smaller aspect of the task (Turning the television on by hitting a switch for example). Later, we might add an expectation that the user will ask for the environmental control unit and engineer the situation so that it is conveniently out of reach. Too big a step or too many steps taken too hurriedly may be stressful and counterproductive:
"For a while, behaving in more assertive ways and being seen by others as having a contribution to make will feel great, If, however,
confidence has not been allowed to grow steadily through gradually testing out new possibilities, the person may be too easily
thrown by confrontation or unexpected responses. It will feel more comfortable to retreat to the ‘safety’ of shyness or
self-deprecation. For someone with an acquired impairment to create a new way of being and communicating, time and
opportunitiesfor validation will be needed. There is the danger of a return to initial feelings of helplessness and despair if these do
not remain available." (DALTON P. 1994 page 71)
What about communication? What do we want Timmy to do? We want him to take command of this situation and do as much for himself as he can and for the rest to instruct another. If he has a VOCA capable of performing remote control this is a good starting point. Alternately, any remote control system that he is able to operate is as good. As an additional strategy (or the only strategy if remote control is unavailable) Timmy should be provided with the vocabulary necessary for him to ask for the television to be turned on. However, all his life the television has been turned on for him. If this no longer happens what might his reaction be? Do not expect the task to be easy. Timmy is unlikely to change the acquired habits of a lifetime overnight. Prevention is better than cure but Timmy has already caught the bug.
If the expectation is that Timmy will ask for the television to be turned on he must have access to the necessary vocabulary. It may be a phrase (AMum, will you turn the tv on please?”) or a word or set of words (Atelevision”, Aprogramme”, AStar Trek”, Awatch”, Aon”, etc). Timmy must understand this vocabulary and the concepts involved. It should not be simply assumed that he does, it should be checked. Having checked his understanding of the words or phrases, he must be taught where the vocabulary is positioned on his system. Role play will give him chance to practice vocabulary and gain skills in its use. We might make a contract with Timmy such that, from next Monday, if he wants the television on, all he has to do is say the word television and it will be turned on. He may need verbal prompts initially and there may be some screams but, if he has understood and agreed and we are creative, it will work. It is important that we specify what verbal behaviours he must exhibit in order to gain the reward. A list of acceptable words (‘television’, ‘Star Trek’, ‘watch’) should be made. If he uses other words a creative response is all that is needed:
ASorry I’m not sure what you want. Think of another way to tell me.”
What if he doesn’t do what we want? If, after a time, the television is turned on anyway he will learn that waiting achieves the desired goal. There must be contingency plans to address problems that may occur. However, if we have:
- checked that he understands the concepts involved;
- taught him the required vocabulary;
- created opportunities in which the vocabulary can be used;
- told him that, in future, he will have to ask for the television to be turned on;
- provided opportunities for practice;
- verbally prompted him to do so.
How can he fail?
Suppose Timmy is not able to contract with us or refuses to do so? The scenario is the game. Check the concepts; teach the vocabulary; role play for experience; repeat the experience with verbal prompting and (if necessary) physically cuing; reduce the prompting and cueing; target the event and go for it! What if it fails? Be positive! However, there should always be a contingency plan.
We should anticipate and cater for the fact that even the best laid plans go wrong. Timmy must not be allowed to fail and his experience should be positive and rewarding. What can go wrong?
a Timmy does nothing. He just sits and waits.
b He says the wrong words.
c He just points to the television instead of using his AAC system.
d He screams and points to the television instead of using his AAC system.
e He screams and screams.
f He screams so much he goes into fit.
g He begins to scream and pound the AAC system. His reaction becomes increasingly more violent.
h He begins to bite himself.
It is essential that we make a list of all that may happen. The significant others involved can brain-storm the possibilities. Of course, it is possible that he does something that has not been considered. In which case, we need to think fast. The rule should be ‘No one fails’. It may be necessary to modify the original objective but, at the very least, there has been success in part and there can be progression from this point.
If points ‘e’ and beyond (see above) are real possibilities then the team should consider very carefully whether they wish to proceed. Is there another option which would prove less threatening to Timmy and less harrowing for the facilitators? If you can’t stand the heat keep out of the kitchen. In other words, if Timmy’s reactions are going to prove too harrowing then do not make the attempt. Only proceed if you are willing, and have thought through the strategies, to see it through.
If points ‘e’ and beyond are real possibilities then the likelihood of their occurrence can be lessened by adequate preparation. If it is certain that he:
- understands the concepts;
- has access to the necessary vocabulary and is able to use it;
- has had repeated successful practice sessions in similar situations using role play in the tutoring environment;
then it is unlikely that he will fail in the engineered situation. Verbal prompting and physical cueing are acceptable but should be reduced in the future.
C Choose and Customise or Create Communication vocabulary Check Concepts
O Oversee, Organise, Order, & Orchestrate the Ongoing tuition of Optimum Vocabulary
P Practice makes Perfect
E Engineer the Experience with Expectation of Efficacy, Evaluate. Encore. Enlarge to other areas of the day.
If Timmy’s reaction is any of the items ‘a’ through ‘h’ there should be an immediate and effective strategy to deal with it.
Timmy does nothing. He just sits and waits. Think of subtle ways of cueing him. Hum the theme tune to the program in question as you go about your business. Verbally prompt - AAre you OK Timmy?”, AAnything you want just holler.” Timmy has to learn that inaction has certain results - in this case no TV. We should be prepared to let him miss his programme if, after all the preparation and cueing, he sits and does nothing. When, finally, he does turn on the TV or ask for the TV to be turned on then we can reward this action by giving him the opportunity to watch the video(s) of the programme(s) he has missed. He now has the power to control the video player himself through the environmental control system and thus his enablement is further increased.
Timmy says the wrong words. AI’m not sure I understand what you are trying to say Timmy. Tell me another way?”
ADrink? But you’ve already got a drink. You can’t want another one already. Drink that one up first.”
Timmy just points to the television instead of using his AAC system. Do not be in the room. AJust popping into the kitchen to do the washing up. If you need anything you only have to say.” Ah, but Timmy uses a symbol board so it is necessary for you to be with him! Then Timmy should not be in the same room as the television. He cannot point to something that is not there. Be creative!
Timmy screams and points to the television instead of using his AAC system. As above, do not be in the room. Timmy’s screams must alert you to possible dangers and the contingency plan must therefore call for fast and effective action.
‘e’ through ‘h’. If these are likely events then another target should be selected or enough preliminary work must be undertaken to reduce the likelihood of their occurrence. Be prepared.
"Many users of augmentative communicative systems have learned to refrain from independently engaging in regular daily activities
because they have received assistance in virtually every aspect of their life." (REICHLE J. 1991 p. 151) (See also SELIGMAN M.
1975; GUESS D., BENSON H., & SIEGEL-CAUSEY E., 1985)
"For children who grow up with motor disorders, the difficulties they experience in moving and speaking and the influence from their
environment both contribute to the development of a passive style. These children often place great demands on their parents.
Training, feeding and washing take up a lot of time, and there are few activities that the children and their parents can take part in
together. Even when the children are small, their parents consider them to be happiest when they are passive. AShe’s as quiet as
an angel”, and, AShe is so good”, are typical remarks made by mothers about their small children with cerebral palsy."
(VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992) (See also SHERE B. & KASTENBAUM R. 1966)
The cartoon makes the point that passive children grow into passive adults. There are many reasons for doing things for children who are capable of doing them for themselves:
- guilt;
- lack of time;
- wanting to help;
- a belief that a disability equates with inability.
There are also many reasons for the growth of passivity:
- failure to see the long-term consequences of short-term actions
(What does it matter if I help a little?);
- the use of closed rather than open questions;
- failure to involve;
- lack of options;
- lack of choice;
- immobility;
- failure to present experience of the world;
- failure to realise that whole sections of standard patterns of language acquisition are
being missed;
- failure to check on conceptual development.
The list goes on and on. How are we going to tackle this issue?
A suggestion is to identify a situation in which a person is presently inactive and selectively modify it so that the person is gradually empowered. The situation chosen must be non-life threatening. Do not hold back food or drink, for example, until a person is forced to ask for it. Our concern is for empowerment through communication skills although other skills come into play. Take the situation in the cartoon. What should be modified? How would staff tackle this situation in order to empower Timmy?
First ensure that whatever happens Timmy has a future opportunity to watch his favourite programme. Get a person secretly to video it for him although he should not be allowed to watch it immediately regardless of the outcome because he will simply learn that ‘all things come to he who waits’. Rather, make the viewing of the ‘missed’ programme contingent upon future non-passive behaviour (I will return to this later).
Timmy cannot turn on the television himself. However, he would be able to with the aid of an environmental control (he may even be able to manage the tv’s own remote control system). With such a system, he can not only switch it on but turn it off, change channels, turn the volume up or down, etc. Start by attempting to change only this aspect of the scenario. The functions to control the television are stored into the communicator and he controls the television set through his AAC system. If it is a low-tech system there are a number of remote control devices on the market that can be operated by a single or dual switch, or with a keyguard by a button.
If empowerment through environmental control is our initial goal then we should not complicate it by trying to do too much too soon. One thing at a time. Small steps are more likely to succeed. It may be necessary to break this task (task analysis) down into smaller units and work on a smaller aspect of the task (Turning the television on by hitting a switch for example). Later, we might add an expectation that the user will ask for the environmental control unit and engineer the situation so that it is conveniently out of reach. Too big a step or too many steps taken too hurriedly may be stressful and counterproductive:
"For a while, behaving in more assertive ways and being seen by others as having a contribution to make will feel great, If, however,
confidence has not been allowed to grow steadily through gradually testing out new possibilities, the person may be too easily
thrown by confrontation or unexpected responses. It will feel more comfortable to retreat to the ‘safety’ of shyness or
self-deprecation. For someone with an acquired impairment to create a new way of being and communicating, time and
opportunitiesfor validation will be needed. There is the danger of a return to initial feelings of helplessness and despair if these do
not remain available." (DALTON P. 1994 page 71)
What about communication? What do we want Timmy to do? We want him to take command of this situation and do as much for himself as he can and for the rest to instruct another. If he has a VOCA capable of performing remote control this is a good starting point. Alternately, any remote control system that he is able to operate is as good. As an additional strategy (or the only strategy if remote control is unavailable) Timmy should be provided with the vocabulary necessary for him to ask for the television to be turned on. However, all his life the television has been turned on for him. If this no longer happens what might his reaction be? Do not expect the task to be easy. Timmy is unlikely to change the acquired habits of a lifetime overnight. Prevention is better than cure but Timmy has already caught the bug.
If the expectation is that Timmy will ask for the television to be turned on he must have access to the necessary vocabulary. It may be a phrase (AMum, will you turn the tv on please?”) or a word or set of words (Atelevision”, Aprogramme”, AStar Trek”, Awatch”, Aon”, etc). Timmy must understand this vocabulary and the concepts involved. It should not be simply assumed that he does, it should be checked. Having checked his understanding of the words or phrases, he must be taught where the vocabulary is positioned on his system. Role play will give him chance to practice vocabulary and gain skills in its use. We might make a contract with Timmy such that, from next Monday, if he wants the television on, all he has to do is say the word television and it will be turned on. He may need verbal prompts initially and there may be some screams but, if he has understood and agreed and we are creative, it will work. It is important that we specify what verbal behaviours he must exhibit in order to gain the reward. A list of acceptable words (‘television’, ‘Star Trek’, ‘watch’) should be made. If he uses other words a creative response is all that is needed:
ASorry I’m not sure what you want. Think of another way to tell me.”
What if he doesn’t do what we want? If, after a time, the television is turned on anyway he will learn that waiting achieves the desired goal. There must be contingency plans to address problems that may occur. However, if we have:
- checked that he understands the concepts involved;
- taught him the required vocabulary;
- created opportunities in which the vocabulary can be used;
- told him that, in future, he will have to ask for the television to be turned on;
- provided opportunities for practice;
- verbally prompted him to do so.
How can he fail?
Suppose Timmy is not able to contract with us or refuses to do so? The scenario is the game. Check the concepts; teach the vocabulary; role play for experience; repeat the experience with verbal prompting and (if necessary) physically cuing; reduce the prompting and cueing; target the event and go for it! What if it fails? Be positive! However, there should always be a contingency plan.
We should anticipate and cater for the fact that even the best laid plans go wrong. Timmy must not be allowed to fail and his experience should be positive and rewarding. What can go wrong?
a Timmy does nothing. He just sits and waits.
b He says the wrong words.
c He just points to the television instead of using his AAC system.
d He screams and points to the television instead of using his AAC system.
e He screams and screams.
f He screams so much he goes into fit.
g He begins to scream and pound the AAC system. His reaction becomes increasingly more violent.
h He begins to bite himself.
It is essential that we make a list of all that may happen. The significant others involved can brain-storm the possibilities. Of course, it is possible that he does something that has not been considered. In which case, we need to think fast. The rule should be ‘No one fails’. It may be necessary to modify the original objective but, at the very least, there has been success in part and there can be progression from this point.
If points ‘e’ and beyond (see above) are real possibilities then the team should consider very carefully whether they wish to proceed. Is there another option which would prove less threatening to Timmy and less harrowing for the facilitators? If you can’t stand the heat keep out of the kitchen. In other words, if Timmy’s reactions are going to prove too harrowing then do not make the attempt. Only proceed if you are willing, and have thought through the strategies, to see it through.
If points ‘e’ and beyond are real possibilities then the likelihood of their occurrence can be lessened by adequate preparation. If it is certain that he:
- understands the concepts;
- has access to the necessary vocabulary and is able to use it;
- has had repeated successful practice sessions in similar situations using role play in the tutoring environment;
then it is unlikely that he will fail in the engineered situation. Verbal prompting and physical cueing are acceptable but should be reduced in the future.
C Choose and Customise or Create Communication vocabulary Check Concepts
O Oversee, Organise, Order, & Orchestrate the Ongoing tuition of Optimum Vocabulary
P Practice makes Perfect
E Engineer the Experience with Expectation of Efficacy, Evaluate. Encore. Enlarge to other areas of the day.
If Timmy’s reaction is any of the items ‘a’ through ‘h’ there should be an immediate and effective strategy to deal with it.
Timmy does nothing. He just sits and waits. Think of subtle ways of cueing him. Hum the theme tune to the program in question as you go about your business. Verbally prompt - AAre you OK Timmy?”, AAnything you want just holler.” Timmy has to learn that inaction has certain results - in this case no TV. We should be prepared to let him miss his programme if, after all the preparation and cueing, he sits and does nothing. When, finally, he does turn on the TV or ask for the TV to be turned on then we can reward this action by giving him the opportunity to watch the video(s) of the programme(s) he has missed. He now has the power to control the video player himself through the environmental control system and thus his enablement is further increased.
Timmy says the wrong words. AI’m not sure I understand what you are trying to say Timmy. Tell me another way?”
ADrink? But you’ve already got a drink. You can’t want another one already. Drink that one up first.”
Timmy just points to the television instead of using his AAC system. Do not be in the room. AJust popping into the kitchen to do the washing up. If you need anything you only have to say.” Ah, but Timmy uses a symbol board so it is necessary for you to be with him! Then Timmy should not be in the same room as the television. He cannot point to something that is not there. Be creative!
Timmy screams and points to the television instead of using his AAC system. As above, do not be in the room. Timmy’s screams must alert you to possible dangers and the contingency plan must therefore call for fast and effective action.
‘e’ through ‘h’. If these are likely events then another target should be selected or enough preliminary work must be undertaken to reduce the likelihood of their occurrence. Be prepared.
PASSIVE 4 - It's all ready for you...
"Children need to be shown that speech is both expected and worthwhile. They should not have all their desires anticipated but be shown that when they ‘ask’ it brings results." (JEFFREE D. & McCONKEY R. 1976)
"It is also required that parents learn to alter their behaviours, such as asking a Light Talker or Touch Talker to mediate a snack time, having their child request a snack and ask for more with each bite." (VAN TATENHOVE G. 1990)
"Learned helplessness occurs when it is unclear to the learner that he or she is able to exert control over the environment.....For many learners, their social history has offered few opportunities to self-select desired objects, people, or activities. At meal times plates are prepared and distributed. Additional serving are provided automatically. Coats are handed out and doors opened when it is time to go. Thus, throughout the day, the caregivers do virtually everything for the learners. Initially, some learners may have attempted to self-select items of interest, but were actively encouraged not to do so." (REICHLE J. 1991 p.141)
A routine that has been developed to ease the load on staff and student can discourage the use of active communication skills. If life is presented to a person ‘on a plate’ such that the person learns ‘all will come to he who waits’ and ‘there is a time and place for everything’ then there is little need to use AAC. The person learns that the desired event will happen regardless and to ask at any other time would be met by AIt’s not time yet”. There needs to be some deviation from the routine to create both the desire and the opportunity to communicate. This will be discussed further in the techniques section.
CASE STUDY: A student was sent to ask the staff in his residential unit for ‘Tea and toast’ for his tea time meal. He duly did so. He said, ATea and toast tea please”. But the staff replied, ANo, No! It should be ‘Can I have some toast and tea for my tea please.’ Can you say that?” When he had finally said it they added, AWell actually it’s jacket potatoes for tea and anyway it’s not tea-time yet!”
Time is always an issue:
AThere isn’t the time to do what you are asking”
Yes there is! It is a question of priorities. At some times during the day events appear to be more pressing than at others - the children have to be ready for school at 9 o’ clock. This is not a good time to work on dressing skills. However, when the children return from school and change into their evening wear ... Furthermore, there is no rule which states that every aspect of an item must be taught at the same time. For example, getting dressed can be broken down into much smaller units (Task analysis - see for example, AINSCOW M. and TWEDDLE D. 1979) such as choosing clothes, laying out clothes, putting on socks. If the learner is only tasked (initially) with putting on his or her own socks then there is a chance of getting to school on time.
CASE STUDY: A school has put back morning assemblies into the afternoon. God may be worshipped at any time of the day. Their reasoning for this move was to allow more time in the morning for the pupils and students to do more for themselves without having to get up an hour earlier and without having to worry about being in the hall for assembly at 8.45
"It is also required that parents learn to alter their behaviours, such as asking a Light Talker or Touch Talker to mediate a snack time, having their child request a snack and ask for more with each bite." (VAN TATENHOVE G. 1990)
"Learned helplessness occurs when it is unclear to the learner that he or she is able to exert control over the environment.....For many learners, their social history has offered few opportunities to self-select desired objects, people, or activities. At meal times plates are prepared and distributed. Additional serving are provided automatically. Coats are handed out and doors opened when it is time to go. Thus, throughout the day, the caregivers do virtually everything for the learners. Initially, some learners may have attempted to self-select items of interest, but were actively encouraged not to do so." (REICHLE J. 1991 p.141)
A routine that has been developed to ease the load on staff and student can discourage the use of active communication skills. If life is presented to a person ‘on a plate’ such that the person learns ‘all will come to he who waits’ and ‘there is a time and place for everything’ then there is little need to use AAC. The person learns that the desired event will happen regardless and to ask at any other time would be met by AIt’s not time yet”. There needs to be some deviation from the routine to create both the desire and the opportunity to communicate. This will be discussed further in the techniques section.
CASE STUDY: A student was sent to ask the staff in his residential unit for ‘Tea and toast’ for his tea time meal. He duly did so. He said, ATea and toast tea please”. But the staff replied, ANo, No! It should be ‘Can I have some toast and tea for my tea please.’ Can you say that?” When he had finally said it they added, AWell actually it’s jacket potatoes for tea and anyway it’s not tea-time yet!”
Time is always an issue:
AThere isn’t the time to do what you are asking”
Yes there is! It is a question of priorities. At some times during the day events appear to be more pressing than at others - the children have to be ready for school at 9 o’ clock. This is not a good time to work on dressing skills. However, when the children return from school and change into their evening wear ... Furthermore, there is no rule which states that every aspect of an item must be taught at the same time. For example, getting dressed can be broken down into much smaller units (Task analysis - see for example, AINSCOW M. and TWEDDLE D. 1979) such as choosing clothes, laying out clothes, putting on socks. If the learner is only tasked (initially) with putting on his or her own socks then there is a chance of getting to school on time.
CASE STUDY: A school has put back morning assemblies into the afternoon. God may be worshipped at any time of the day. Their reasoning for this move was to allow more time in the morning for the pupils and students to do more for themselves without having to get up an hour earlier and without having to worry about being in the hall for assembly at 8.45
PASSIVE 5 - It's because we care...
"The more we love, the more the object of our love seems to us to be a victim." (PASTERNAK B. 1957)
"Many users of augmentative communicative systems have learned to refrain from independently engaging in regular daily activities because they have received assistance in virtually every aspect of their life." (REICHLE J. 1991 p. 151)
"The children’s physical disabilities place considerable restrictions on their personal development. There are activities in which they will be unable to participate, and many fields where they will gain only limited experience Part of this limitation is caused primarily not by the motor handicap, however, but by the fact that, due to negative experiences, they believe they are unable to do anything. Later on they will no longer try to do things that they perhaps would have been capable of. They learn that they are dependent on others because others do things for them which they would be unable to manage alone. At the same time they will experience that they are an inconvenience, that they are a hindrance and that the adults are most content when they are passive. The adults’ attitude to the children, which the children to a great extent assume themselves (cf. Madge and Fassam 1982), therefore plays a significant role in forming their life and opportunities for personal growth." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
Passivity and learned helplessness are features of both uncaring and caring environments. Indeed, passivity may be more strongly reinforced within a caring than an uncaring situation. It is the very fact we care that prompts us to do things for and not with others, to stop their actions when we are fearful of danger or damage or, as in the overhead, a spill:
"Learners may inadvertently have been taught to wait for objects and people of interest to come to them. That is, their history of
interactions with the environment may have taught them to be helpless. Sometimes this helplessness culminates in a learner
looking at an object or person of interest but failing to reach forward, even though he or she is physically capable of doing so."
(REICHLE J. 1991 p. 140)
"For many learners their social history has offered few opportunities to self-select desired objects, people, or activities. At
mealtimes, plates are prepared and distributed. Additional servings are provided automatically. Coats are handed out and doors
opened when it is time to go outside. Thus, throughout the day, the caregivers do virtually everything for the learners. Initially,
some learners may have attempted to self-select items or activities of interest, but were actively encouraged not to do so. For
example, while at a restaurant, the learner may reach for a pitcher of milk. Fearing a spill, the caregiver may quickly intervene by
prompting the learner’s hand away from the pitcher. Over time, the learner’s self-selecting behaviour may be extinguished."
(REICHLE J. 1991 p. 141)
An element of risk-taking is essential to prevent the development of passive traits in otherwise active people. We should not expose people to unnecessary danger but, if some water is spilt, a plate broken, or a shop keeper embarrassed, will the world suddenly end? If a person is unable to perform an action without aid it is possible to facilitate (see CROSSLEY R. & McDONALD A. 1982; CROSSLEY R., REMINGTON-GURNEY J., & BATT M. 1990; EMERSON A. 1994, 1995; & HOWLIN P. 1995) users by guiding movements and actions, by holding hands or arms. Gradually, as we too grow in confidence, we allow ourselves to let go (See also VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992 p. 30).
Facilitated Communication is a much debated and hotly contested area. If it is a stepping-stone which eventually leads to independent communication then it has proved its worth. It may be argued, however, that other methods could produce a similar result in less time. I do not want to take sides in this issue nor shall I sit on the fence! Some reports (see below) suggest that in blind tests facilitation is the (subconscious) work of the facilitator and not the faciltatee in 99 cases out of every 100. This research is often used to argue the highly dubious nature of the technique but there is a danger in throwing out the baby with the bath water: for one person (if 99 out of every 100 fail then one must be successful) the technique appears to have been effective. Let us not overlook the one success story in our reaction to the 99 apparent failures. If facilitated communication is to be used as a technique within the field of augmentative communication then it must be introduced to the client with care and developed with stringent checks and safeguards against our own subconscious desire to see a successful outcome.
For articles, books, journals, and reviews on Facilitated Communication (for, against, and somewhere in between) see:
1977
OPPENHEIM R. 1977;
1980
COMMITTEE OF INQUIRY TO INVESTIGATE CLAIMS ABOUT CHILDREN AT ST. NICHOLAS HOSPITAL 1980; EISEN P. 1980;
1981
CUMMINS R. & BANCROFT H. 1981;
1982
DAVEY R. 1982;
1985
EASTHAM D. 1985;
1987
BATT M., CROSSLEY R., & REMINGTON‑GURNEY J. 1987;
1988
CROSSLEY R. 1988; DEAL COMMUNICATION CENTRE 1988; HARRINGTON K. 1988; INTER‑DISCIPLINARY WORKING PARTY ON ISSUES IN SEVERE COMMUNICATION IMPAIRMENT 1988; JOHNSON I. 1988; MEYERS L. 1988;
1989
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY REVIEW PANEL REPORT TO THE DIRECTOR GENERAL 1989; JOHNSON I. 1989;
1990
BATT M. 1990; BIKLEN D. 1990; BIKLEN D. & CROSSLEY R. 1990; CROSSLEY R. 1990; CROSSLEY R. & McDONALD A. 1990; CROSSLEY R., REMINGTON-GURNEY J., & BATT M. 1990; ELKS M. 1990; REMINGTON-GURNEY J. & CROSSLEY R. 1990;
1991
ARENDT‑NEILSEN L., BECH B., ELBRO C., JANSEN E., & KLEWE L. 1991: BIKLEN D., MORTON M., SAHA S., DUNCAN J., GOLD D., HARDARDOTTIR M., KARNA E., O’CONNOR S., & RAO S. 1991; BIKLEN D. & SCHUBERT A. 1991; CROSSLEY R. 1991; HILL D. 1991; MAKARUSHKA M. 1991; REMINGTON‑GURNEY J. 1991; SCHOPLER E. 1991; SCHUBERT A. 1991;
1992
ARCHER A. 1992; ATTWOOD T. 1992; BERGER C. L. 1992; BERGMAN J. 1992; BEUKELMAN D. & MIRENDA P. 1992 pages 287 - 289; BIKLEN D. 1992; BIKLEN D., MORTON M., GOLD D., BERRIGAN C., & SWAMINATHAN S. 1992; BING J. 1992; BJARNASON D. 1992; CALCULATOR S. 1992; CALCULATOR S. & McLEAN J. 1992; CALCULATOR S. & SINGER K. 1992; COLLINS A. 1992; CORDES R. 1992; CROSSLEY R. 1992; CROSSLEY R. & REMINGTON-GURNEY J. 1992; CUMLEY G. & BEUKELMAN D. 1992; CUMMINS R. 1992; CUMMINS R. & PRIOR M. 1992; DEAL COMMUNICATION CENTRE 1992; DONNELLAN A., SABIN L., & MAJURE L. 1992; EASTHAM D. 1992; FARKUS P. 1992; HILL D. & LEARY M. 1992; HUDSON A. 1992; JACOBSON J. & MULICK J. 1992; JOWONIO SCHOOL 1992; KUCHICH B., STEWART S., DAVIDSON G., McKAY C. & ROWAT E. 1992; KURTZ A. 1992; LEHR S. 1992; McDONALD S. & BIEN A. 1992; McLEAN J. 1992; McNABB W. 1992; McNAUGHTON S. & LINDSAY P. 1992; McPHAIL P. 1992; MARSH A. 1992; MINNES P. 1992; MORTON M. 1992; OLSEN L., GURRY S., LARKIN A., & McSHEEHAN M. 1992; PIERCE C. & TWEEDIE G. PRIOR M. & CUMMINS R. 1992; REMINGTON‑GURNEY J. 1992; RIMLAND B. 1992; SCHOPLER E. 1992; SCHUH M. 1992; SELLIN B. 1992; SILLIMAN E. 1992; SINASON V. 1992 see chapter 8; SPAKE A. 1992; SPELMAN J. 1992; VON TETZCHNER S. 1992; WALLER A. 1992; WHELAN M. 1992; WHEELER D., JACOBSON J., PAGLIERI R., & SCHWARTZ A. 1992; WOODS E. 1992; ZÖLLER D. 1992;
1993
BARKER B., LEARY M., REPA S., & WHISSEL P. 1993; BAXTER C. 1993; BIKLEN D. 1993; BLIGH S. & KUPPERMAN P. 1993; BRADDOCK S., BRADDOCK B., & GRAHAM J. 1993; CALCULATOR S. 1993; CALL C., ELLISON K., & HILL P. 1993; CENTRE FOR COMMUNITY INCLUSION 1993; CHAZIN S. 1993; CHIDEYA F. 1993; COMINS J. 1993; CROSSLEY R. 1993; DEPARTMENT OF FAMILY SERVICES AND ABORIGINAL AND ISLANDER AFFAIRS 1993; DILLON K. 1993; DONNELLAN A. 1993; DUCHAN J. 1993; EBERLIN M. & McCONNACHIE G. 1993; EBERLIN M., McCONNACHIE G., IBEL S., & VOLPE L. 1993; EMERSON A. 1993; GABEL S. 1993; GESCHKE N. 1993; GOULD J. 1993; GREEN G. 1993; GREEN G. & SHANE H. 1993; HALL G. 1993; HASKEW P. & DONNELLAN A. 1993; HIGGINBOTHAM D. J., SONNENMEIER R. & DUCHAN J. 1993; HILL D. & LEARY M. 1993; HOSTLER S., ALLAIRE J., & CHRISTOPH R. 1993; HOYT R. 1993; HUDSON A. 1993; HUDSON A., MELITA B., & ARNOLD N. 1993; JACOBSON J. 1993; JANZEN-WILDE M. 1993; JOHNSON I. 1993; KAISER A. & GOETZ L. 1993; KOHN A. 1993; KRUMM J. 1993; LAVIN J. 1993; MARAFINO K. 1993; McDONALD T. 1993; McNAUGHTON S. & LINDSAY P. 1993; MINNES P. 1993; MOORE S., DONOVAN B., & HUDSON A. 1993; MOORE S., DONOVAN B., HUDSON A., DYKSTRA J., & LAWRENCE J. 1993; MORTON M. 1993; MULICK J., JACOBSON J., & KOBE F. 1993; QUEENSLAND DEPARTMENT OF FAMILY SERVICES AND ABORIGINAL AND ISLANDER AFFAIRS 1993; OGLETREE B., HAMTIL A., SOLBERG L., & SCOBY‑SCHMELZLE S. 1993; REICHEL H. 1993; REMINGTON‑GURNEY J. 1993; RICHARD J., JACKSON K., URICH M., & URICH A. 1993; RIMLAND B. 1993; SABIN L. 1993; SABIN L. & DONNELLAN A. 1993; SCHULTE J. 1993; SCRIVENER T. 1993; SELLIN B. 1993; SHANE H. 1993; SHARING TO LEARN 1993; SIENKIEWICZ‑MERCER R. 1993; SMITH M. D. & BELCHER R. 1993; STAFFORD L. 1993a & b; STRANDT‑CONROY K. & SABIN L. 1993; SZEMPRUCH J. & JACOBSON J. 1993; THIOS S. 1993; THOMPSON T. 1993; WHEELER D., JACOBSON J., PAGLIERI R., & SCHWARTZ A. 1993; VICKER B. 1993; VINK R. 1993; WILLIAMS L. 1993;
1994
ASHA 1994; BENNETT C. 1994; BERGER C. 1994; BIKLEN D. 1994; BIKLEN D. & DUCHAN J. 1994; BLIGH S., KUPPERMAN P., & KLCO J. 1994; BODE T. 1994; BOTASH A., BABUTS D., MITCHELL N., O’HARA M., MANUEL J., & LYNCH L. 1994; CABAY M. 1994; CARDINAL D. 1994; CLARKSON G. 1994; CORDES R. 1994; COUGHLIN E. 1994; CROSSLEY R. 1994; DATLOW SMITH M., HAAS P., & BELCHER R. 1994; DILLON K., FENLASON J., & VOGEL D. 1994; DUNCAN J. 1994; EMERSON A. 1994; FELCE D. 1994; FERGUSON D. & HORNER R. 1994; GAMRADT J., HUEBNER R., KLUND J., & WHITE P. 1994; GESCHKE N. 1994; GONZALES-CRUSSI 1994; GOODE G. 1994; GRAVELLE G. 1994; GREEN G. 1994; GREEN G. & SHANE H. 1994; HALLE J. W. 1994; HALLE J. W. & CHADSEY‑RUSCH J. 1994; HECKLER S. 1994; HITZING W. 1994; HORNER R. 1994; HOWLIN P. 1994; HUEBNER R., GAMRADT J., & VANDERHEIDEN G. 1994; JACOBSON J. & MULICK J. 1994; JOHNSON I. 1994; JONES D. 1994; JOSEPH A. 1994; KAISER A. 1994; LEVINE K., SHANE H., & WHARTON R. 1994; LOWRY M. 1994; McDONALD A. & CROSSLEY R. 1994; MAJURE L. 1994; MARKS G. 1994; MARTIN R. 1994; MYERS J. 1994; MYLES B., QUINN C., & SIMPSON R. 1994; RAMSDEN J. 1994; REGAL R., ROONEY J., & WANDAS T. 1994; RICHER J. 1994; ROBINSON J. 1994; SACKS O. 1994; SCHNEIDERMAN H. 1994; SHANE H. C. 1994; SHANE H. C. & KEARNS K. 1994; SHARING TO LEARN 1994; SIMON E., TOLL D., & WHITEHAIR P. 1994; SJÖHOLM B. & SJÖHOLM M. 1994; SMITH M. D. & BELCHER R. 1994; SMITH M. D., HAAS P., & BELCHER R. 1994; STARR E. 1994; TAYLOR S. 1994; THOMPSON T. 1994; TWACHTMAN D. 1994; VAZQUEZ C. 1994; WHITEHURST G. & CRONE D. 1994; WILLIAMS D. 1994; ZANGARI C., LLOYD L., & VICKER B. 1994;
1995
ALLEN B. & ALLEN S. 1995; BIKLEN D. 1995; BIKLEN D., SAHA N., & KLIEWER C. 1995; BODE T. 1995; BRAMAN B., BRADY M., LINEHAN S., & WILLIAMS R. 1995; BUNNING K. 1995; CALCULATOR S. 1995; CALCULATOR S. & HATCH E. 1995; CANDELORA V. 1995; CHANTRELL O. 1995; CREWS W., SANDERS E., HENSLEY L., JOHNSON Y., BONAVENTURA S., & RHODES R. 1995; CROSSLEY R. 1995; DE JONGE D. 1995; DONNELLAN A. 1995; DONNELLAN A. & LEARY M. 1995; DUCHAN J. 1995; ELIASOPH E. & DONNELLAN A. 1995; EMERSON A. 1995; FRIED-OKEN M., PAUL R., & FAY W. 1995; FROOK J. 1995; HOWLIN P. 1995; HUDSON A. 1995; JACOBSON J., MULICK J., & SCHWARTZ A. 1995; JANZEN-WILDE M., DUCHAN J., & HIGGINBOTHAM D. 1995; KOPPENHAVER D., PIERCE P., & YODER D. 1995; LEUNG B. & CLARK C. 1995; LEVINE K.& WHARTON R. 1995; MAURER N. 1995; MONTEE B., MILTENBERGER R., & WITTROCK D. 1995; OLNEY M. 1995; ROCHA A. & JORDE K. 1995; SELLIN B. 1995; SIEGEL B. 1995; SILLIMAN E. 1995; SIMON E., TOLL D., & WHITEHAIR P. 1995; SIMPSON R. & MYLES B. 1995; VAZQUEZ C. 1995; WILLIAMS D. 1995a; YODER P. 1995; ZIRK P. 1995;
1996
ALLEN B. & ALLEN S. 1996; BEBKO J., PERRY A., & BRYSON S. 1996; BECK A. & PIROVANO C. 1996; BOMBA C., O’DONNELL L., MARKOWITZ C., & HOLMES D. 1996; CARDINAL D. 1996; CARDINAL D., HANSON D., & WAKEHAM J. 1996; DONNELLAN A. 1996; DWYER J. 1996; EMERSON A. 1996; GAMRADT J., HUEBNER R., KLUND J., WHITE P., & VANDERHEIDEN G. 1996; GRAHAM G. 1996; HASTINGS R. 1996; HOGAN N. & WOLF L. 1996; KNOX L. 1996; LAPOS M. 1996; REED D. 1996; REMINGTON-GURNEY J. 1996; SCHOPLER E. 1996; SHEEHAN C. & MATUOZZI R. 1996; SILLIMAN E. 1996; SIMON E., WHITEHAIR P. & TOLL D. 1996; SPITZ H. 1996; VON TETZCHNER S. 1996; WEISS M., WAGNER S., & BAUMAN M. 1996; WHEELER D., JACOBSON J., PAGLIERI R., & SCHWARTZ A. 1996; WHITMARSH A. 1996;
1997
ADAMS C. 1997; BIKLEN D. & CARDINAL D. 1997; CROSSLEY R. 1997; DERBYSHIRE P. 1997; DOCKRELL J. & STERLING C. 1997; ROSENBLOOM L. 1997; SPITZ H. 1997; VON TETZCHNER S. 1997;
The cartoon makes the point that a lack of experience may result from a significant other’s attempts to protect a user. The average child attempting a similar task has much to gain:
"Imagine, for example, the infant trying to pick up and drink from a full, pint size container. She tries to assimilate this new object
to her existing schemes of grasping and drinking but finds that the object resists her efforts and begins to tilt and spill. She will
eventually come to know that some things are too heavy for her to lift. Indeed, this experience is laying the developmental
foundations for the concept of weight itself." (WOOD D. 1988)
What does Saul (in the cartoon) learn from this experience? He eventually learns not to attempt things for himself and to wait until others do it for him or to ask others to do it for him. This process may become institutionalised such that even mature people are not making decisions for themselves but have to ask permission.
CASE STUDY: Peter is a 65-year-old man with cerebral palsy. He spent an hour talking to me about social and political history. He told me that he has to ask permission to return to his bedroom during the day.
CASE STUDY: Tom is 53. His mother still makes all the major decisions on his behalf.
It does not follow that we should stop helping people or stop giving assistance but:
"at the same time, any help that has to be given needs to be offered in such a way that does not make the child feel helpless."
(DALTON P. 1994, page 134)
"Many users of augmentative communicative systems have learned to refrain from independently engaging in regular daily activities because they have received assistance in virtually every aspect of their life." (REICHLE J. 1991 p. 151)
"The children’s physical disabilities place considerable restrictions on their personal development. There are activities in which they will be unable to participate, and many fields where they will gain only limited experience Part of this limitation is caused primarily not by the motor handicap, however, but by the fact that, due to negative experiences, they believe they are unable to do anything. Later on they will no longer try to do things that they perhaps would have been capable of. They learn that they are dependent on others because others do things for them which they would be unable to manage alone. At the same time they will experience that they are an inconvenience, that they are a hindrance and that the adults are most content when they are passive. The adults’ attitude to the children, which the children to a great extent assume themselves (cf. Madge and Fassam 1982), therefore plays a significant role in forming their life and opportunities for personal growth." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
Passivity and learned helplessness are features of both uncaring and caring environments. Indeed, passivity may be more strongly reinforced within a caring than an uncaring situation. It is the very fact we care that prompts us to do things for and not with others, to stop their actions when we are fearful of danger or damage or, as in the overhead, a spill:
"Learners may inadvertently have been taught to wait for objects and people of interest to come to them. That is, their history of
interactions with the environment may have taught them to be helpless. Sometimes this helplessness culminates in a learner
looking at an object or person of interest but failing to reach forward, even though he or she is physically capable of doing so."
(REICHLE J. 1991 p. 140)
"For many learners their social history has offered few opportunities to self-select desired objects, people, or activities. At
mealtimes, plates are prepared and distributed. Additional servings are provided automatically. Coats are handed out and doors
opened when it is time to go outside. Thus, throughout the day, the caregivers do virtually everything for the learners. Initially,
some learners may have attempted to self-select items or activities of interest, but were actively encouraged not to do so. For
example, while at a restaurant, the learner may reach for a pitcher of milk. Fearing a spill, the caregiver may quickly intervene by
prompting the learner’s hand away from the pitcher. Over time, the learner’s self-selecting behaviour may be extinguished."
(REICHLE J. 1991 p. 141)
An element of risk-taking is essential to prevent the development of passive traits in otherwise active people. We should not expose people to unnecessary danger but, if some water is spilt, a plate broken, or a shop keeper embarrassed, will the world suddenly end? If a person is unable to perform an action without aid it is possible to facilitate (see CROSSLEY R. & McDONALD A. 1982; CROSSLEY R., REMINGTON-GURNEY J., & BATT M. 1990; EMERSON A. 1994, 1995; & HOWLIN P. 1995) users by guiding movements and actions, by holding hands or arms. Gradually, as we too grow in confidence, we allow ourselves to let go (See also VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992 p. 30).
Facilitated Communication is a much debated and hotly contested area. If it is a stepping-stone which eventually leads to independent communication then it has proved its worth. It may be argued, however, that other methods could produce a similar result in less time. I do not want to take sides in this issue nor shall I sit on the fence! Some reports (see below) suggest that in blind tests facilitation is the (subconscious) work of the facilitator and not the faciltatee in 99 cases out of every 100. This research is often used to argue the highly dubious nature of the technique but there is a danger in throwing out the baby with the bath water: for one person (if 99 out of every 100 fail then one must be successful) the technique appears to have been effective. Let us not overlook the one success story in our reaction to the 99 apparent failures. If facilitated communication is to be used as a technique within the field of augmentative communication then it must be introduced to the client with care and developed with stringent checks and safeguards against our own subconscious desire to see a successful outcome.
For articles, books, journals, and reviews on Facilitated Communication (for, against, and somewhere in between) see:
1977
OPPENHEIM R. 1977;
1980
COMMITTEE OF INQUIRY TO INVESTIGATE CLAIMS ABOUT CHILDREN AT ST. NICHOLAS HOSPITAL 1980; EISEN P. 1980;
1981
CUMMINS R. & BANCROFT H. 1981;
1982
DAVEY R. 1982;
1985
EASTHAM D. 1985;
1987
BATT M., CROSSLEY R., & REMINGTON‑GURNEY J. 1987;
1988
CROSSLEY R. 1988; DEAL COMMUNICATION CENTRE 1988; HARRINGTON K. 1988; INTER‑DISCIPLINARY WORKING PARTY ON ISSUES IN SEVERE COMMUNICATION IMPAIRMENT 1988; JOHNSON I. 1988; MEYERS L. 1988;
1989
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY REVIEW PANEL REPORT TO THE DIRECTOR GENERAL 1989; JOHNSON I. 1989;
1990
BATT M. 1990; BIKLEN D. 1990; BIKLEN D. & CROSSLEY R. 1990; CROSSLEY R. 1990; CROSSLEY R. & McDONALD A. 1990; CROSSLEY R., REMINGTON-GURNEY J., & BATT M. 1990; ELKS M. 1990; REMINGTON-GURNEY J. & CROSSLEY R. 1990;
1991
ARENDT‑NEILSEN L., BECH B., ELBRO C., JANSEN E., & KLEWE L. 1991: BIKLEN D., MORTON M., SAHA S., DUNCAN J., GOLD D., HARDARDOTTIR M., KARNA E., O’CONNOR S., & RAO S. 1991; BIKLEN D. & SCHUBERT A. 1991; CROSSLEY R. 1991; HILL D. 1991; MAKARUSHKA M. 1991; REMINGTON‑GURNEY J. 1991; SCHOPLER E. 1991; SCHUBERT A. 1991;
1992
ARCHER A. 1992; ATTWOOD T. 1992; BERGER C. L. 1992; BERGMAN J. 1992; BEUKELMAN D. & MIRENDA P. 1992 pages 287 - 289; BIKLEN D. 1992; BIKLEN D., MORTON M., GOLD D., BERRIGAN C., & SWAMINATHAN S. 1992; BING J. 1992; BJARNASON D. 1992; CALCULATOR S. 1992; CALCULATOR S. & McLEAN J. 1992; CALCULATOR S. & SINGER K. 1992; COLLINS A. 1992; CORDES R. 1992; CROSSLEY R. 1992; CROSSLEY R. & REMINGTON-GURNEY J. 1992; CUMLEY G. & BEUKELMAN D. 1992; CUMMINS R. 1992; CUMMINS R. & PRIOR M. 1992; DEAL COMMUNICATION CENTRE 1992; DONNELLAN A., SABIN L., & MAJURE L. 1992; EASTHAM D. 1992; FARKUS P. 1992; HILL D. & LEARY M. 1992; HUDSON A. 1992; JACOBSON J. & MULICK J. 1992; JOWONIO SCHOOL 1992; KUCHICH B., STEWART S., DAVIDSON G., McKAY C. & ROWAT E. 1992; KURTZ A. 1992; LEHR S. 1992; McDONALD S. & BIEN A. 1992; McLEAN J. 1992; McNABB W. 1992; McNAUGHTON S. & LINDSAY P. 1992; McPHAIL P. 1992; MARSH A. 1992; MINNES P. 1992; MORTON M. 1992; OLSEN L., GURRY S., LARKIN A., & McSHEEHAN M. 1992; PIERCE C. & TWEEDIE G. PRIOR M. & CUMMINS R. 1992; REMINGTON‑GURNEY J. 1992; RIMLAND B. 1992; SCHOPLER E. 1992; SCHUH M. 1992; SELLIN B. 1992; SILLIMAN E. 1992; SINASON V. 1992 see chapter 8; SPAKE A. 1992; SPELMAN J. 1992; VON TETZCHNER S. 1992; WALLER A. 1992; WHELAN M. 1992; WHEELER D., JACOBSON J., PAGLIERI R., & SCHWARTZ A. 1992; WOODS E. 1992; ZÖLLER D. 1992;
1993
BARKER B., LEARY M., REPA S., & WHISSEL P. 1993; BAXTER C. 1993; BIKLEN D. 1993; BLIGH S. & KUPPERMAN P. 1993; BRADDOCK S., BRADDOCK B., & GRAHAM J. 1993; CALCULATOR S. 1993; CALL C., ELLISON K., & HILL P. 1993; CENTRE FOR COMMUNITY INCLUSION 1993; CHAZIN S. 1993; CHIDEYA F. 1993; COMINS J. 1993; CROSSLEY R. 1993; DEPARTMENT OF FAMILY SERVICES AND ABORIGINAL AND ISLANDER AFFAIRS 1993; DILLON K. 1993; DONNELLAN A. 1993; DUCHAN J. 1993; EBERLIN M. & McCONNACHIE G. 1993; EBERLIN M., McCONNACHIE G., IBEL S., & VOLPE L. 1993; EMERSON A. 1993; GABEL S. 1993; GESCHKE N. 1993; GOULD J. 1993; GREEN G. 1993; GREEN G. & SHANE H. 1993; HALL G. 1993; HASKEW P. & DONNELLAN A. 1993; HIGGINBOTHAM D. J., SONNENMEIER R. & DUCHAN J. 1993; HILL D. & LEARY M. 1993; HOSTLER S., ALLAIRE J., & CHRISTOPH R. 1993; HOYT R. 1993; HUDSON A. 1993; HUDSON A., MELITA B., & ARNOLD N. 1993; JACOBSON J. 1993; JANZEN-WILDE M. 1993; JOHNSON I. 1993; KAISER A. & GOETZ L. 1993; KOHN A. 1993; KRUMM J. 1993; LAVIN J. 1993; MARAFINO K. 1993; McDONALD T. 1993; McNAUGHTON S. & LINDSAY P. 1993; MINNES P. 1993; MOORE S., DONOVAN B., & HUDSON A. 1993; MOORE S., DONOVAN B., HUDSON A., DYKSTRA J., & LAWRENCE J. 1993; MORTON M. 1993; MULICK J., JACOBSON J., & KOBE F. 1993; QUEENSLAND DEPARTMENT OF FAMILY SERVICES AND ABORIGINAL AND ISLANDER AFFAIRS 1993; OGLETREE B., HAMTIL A., SOLBERG L., & SCOBY‑SCHMELZLE S. 1993; REICHEL H. 1993; REMINGTON‑GURNEY J. 1993; RICHARD J., JACKSON K., URICH M., & URICH A. 1993; RIMLAND B. 1993; SABIN L. 1993; SABIN L. & DONNELLAN A. 1993; SCHULTE J. 1993; SCRIVENER T. 1993; SELLIN B. 1993; SHANE H. 1993; SHARING TO LEARN 1993; SIENKIEWICZ‑MERCER R. 1993; SMITH M. D. & BELCHER R. 1993; STAFFORD L. 1993a & b; STRANDT‑CONROY K. & SABIN L. 1993; SZEMPRUCH J. & JACOBSON J. 1993; THIOS S. 1993; THOMPSON T. 1993; WHEELER D., JACOBSON J., PAGLIERI R., & SCHWARTZ A. 1993; VICKER B. 1993; VINK R. 1993; WILLIAMS L. 1993;
1994
ASHA 1994; BENNETT C. 1994; BERGER C. 1994; BIKLEN D. 1994; BIKLEN D. & DUCHAN J. 1994; BLIGH S., KUPPERMAN P., & KLCO J. 1994; BODE T. 1994; BOTASH A., BABUTS D., MITCHELL N., O’HARA M., MANUEL J., & LYNCH L. 1994; CABAY M. 1994; CARDINAL D. 1994; CLARKSON G. 1994; CORDES R. 1994; COUGHLIN E. 1994; CROSSLEY R. 1994; DATLOW SMITH M., HAAS P., & BELCHER R. 1994; DILLON K., FENLASON J., & VOGEL D. 1994; DUNCAN J. 1994; EMERSON A. 1994; FELCE D. 1994; FERGUSON D. & HORNER R. 1994; GAMRADT J., HUEBNER R., KLUND J., & WHITE P. 1994; GESCHKE N. 1994; GONZALES-CRUSSI 1994; GOODE G. 1994; GRAVELLE G. 1994; GREEN G. 1994; GREEN G. & SHANE H. 1994; HALLE J. W. 1994; HALLE J. W. & CHADSEY‑RUSCH J. 1994; HECKLER S. 1994; HITZING W. 1994; HORNER R. 1994; HOWLIN P. 1994; HUEBNER R., GAMRADT J., & VANDERHEIDEN G. 1994; JACOBSON J. & MULICK J. 1994; JOHNSON I. 1994; JONES D. 1994; JOSEPH A. 1994; KAISER A. 1994; LEVINE K., SHANE H., & WHARTON R. 1994; LOWRY M. 1994; McDONALD A. & CROSSLEY R. 1994; MAJURE L. 1994; MARKS G. 1994; MARTIN R. 1994; MYERS J. 1994; MYLES B., QUINN C., & SIMPSON R. 1994; RAMSDEN J. 1994; REGAL R., ROONEY J., & WANDAS T. 1994; RICHER J. 1994; ROBINSON J. 1994; SACKS O. 1994; SCHNEIDERMAN H. 1994; SHANE H. C. 1994; SHANE H. C. & KEARNS K. 1994; SHARING TO LEARN 1994; SIMON E., TOLL D., & WHITEHAIR P. 1994; SJÖHOLM B. & SJÖHOLM M. 1994; SMITH M. D. & BELCHER R. 1994; SMITH M. D., HAAS P., & BELCHER R. 1994; STARR E. 1994; TAYLOR S. 1994; THOMPSON T. 1994; TWACHTMAN D. 1994; VAZQUEZ C. 1994; WHITEHURST G. & CRONE D. 1994; WILLIAMS D. 1994; ZANGARI C., LLOYD L., & VICKER B. 1994;
1995
ALLEN B. & ALLEN S. 1995; BIKLEN D. 1995; BIKLEN D., SAHA N., & KLIEWER C. 1995; BODE T. 1995; BRAMAN B., BRADY M., LINEHAN S., & WILLIAMS R. 1995; BUNNING K. 1995; CALCULATOR S. 1995; CALCULATOR S. & HATCH E. 1995; CANDELORA V. 1995; CHANTRELL O. 1995; CREWS W., SANDERS E., HENSLEY L., JOHNSON Y., BONAVENTURA S., & RHODES R. 1995; CROSSLEY R. 1995; DE JONGE D. 1995; DONNELLAN A. 1995; DONNELLAN A. & LEARY M. 1995; DUCHAN J. 1995; ELIASOPH E. & DONNELLAN A. 1995; EMERSON A. 1995; FRIED-OKEN M., PAUL R., & FAY W. 1995; FROOK J. 1995; HOWLIN P. 1995; HUDSON A. 1995; JACOBSON J., MULICK J., & SCHWARTZ A. 1995; JANZEN-WILDE M., DUCHAN J., & HIGGINBOTHAM D. 1995; KOPPENHAVER D., PIERCE P., & YODER D. 1995; LEUNG B. & CLARK C. 1995; LEVINE K.& WHARTON R. 1995; MAURER N. 1995; MONTEE B., MILTENBERGER R., & WITTROCK D. 1995; OLNEY M. 1995; ROCHA A. & JORDE K. 1995; SELLIN B. 1995; SIEGEL B. 1995; SILLIMAN E. 1995; SIMON E., TOLL D., & WHITEHAIR P. 1995; SIMPSON R. & MYLES B. 1995; VAZQUEZ C. 1995; WILLIAMS D. 1995a; YODER P. 1995; ZIRK P. 1995;
1996
ALLEN B. & ALLEN S. 1996; BEBKO J., PERRY A., & BRYSON S. 1996; BECK A. & PIROVANO C. 1996; BOMBA C., O’DONNELL L., MARKOWITZ C., & HOLMES D. 1996; CARDINAL D. 1996; CARDINAL D., HANSON D., & WAKEHAM J. 1996; DONNELLAN A. 1996; DWYER J. 1996; EMERSON A. 1996; GAMRADT J., HUEBNER R., KLUND J., WHITE P., & VANDERHEIDEN G. 1996; GRAHAM G. 1996; HASTINGS R. 1996; HOGAN N. & WOLF L. 1996; KNOX L. 1996; LAPOS M. 1996; REED D. 1996; REMINGTON-GURNEY J. 1996; SCHOPLER E. 1996; SHEEHAN C. & MATUOZZI R. 1996; SILLIMAN E. 1996; SIMON E., WHITEHAIR P. & TOLL D. 1996; SPITZ H. 1996; VON TETZCHNER S. 1996; WEISS M., WAGNER S., & BAUMAN M. 1996; WHEELER D., JACOBSON J., PAGLIERI R., & SCHWARTZ A. 1996; WHITMARSH A. 1996;
1997
ADAMS C. 1997; BIKLEN D. & CARDINAL D. 1997; CROSSLEY R. 1997; DERBYSHIRE P. 1997; DOCKRELL J. & STERLING C. 1997; ROSENBLOOM L. 1997; SPITZ H. 1997; VON TETZCHNER S. 1997;
The cartoon makes the point that a lack of experience may result from a significant other’s attempts to protect a user. The average child attempting a similar task has much to gain:
"Imagine, for example, the infant trying to pick up and drink from a full, pint size container. She tries to assimilate this new object
to her existing schemes of grasping and drinking but finds that the object resists her efforts and begins to tilt and spill. She will
eventually come to know that some things are too heavy for her to lift. Indeed, this experience is laying the developmental
foundations for the concept of weight itself." (WOOD D. 1988)
What does Saul (in the cartoon) learn from this experience? He eventually learns not to attempt things for himself and to wait until others do it for him or to ask others to do it for him. This process may become institutionalised such that even mature people are not making decisions for themselves but have to ask permission.
CASE STUDY: Peter is a 65-year-old man with cerebral palsy. He spent an hour talking to me about social and political history. He told me that he has to ask permission to return to his bedroom during the day.
CASE STUDY: Tom is 53. His mother still makes all the major decisions on his behalf.
It does not follow that we should stop helping people or stop giving assistance but:
"at the same time, any help that has to be given needs to be offered in such a way that does not make the child feel helpless."
(DALTON P. 1994, page 134)
PASSIVE 6 - Don't become a SHACKLE
"There is only one thing in the world worse than being talked about, and that is being talked for."
(JONES A.P. 1994 with apologies to OSCAR WILDE!)
Surrogate Human Augmentative Communicator - Keeping Learners Enslaved
The cartoon makes the point that it is possible to increase passivity by continuing to talk for a person long past the time when this ceases to be necessary:
"We would not, for example, expect a normally developing two year old to accurately report detailed symptomatology of an illness
to their paediatrician. However, when surrogate communicating and other cultivators of dependency extend beyond the time of
relevant need, learned helpless may result." (SWEENEY L. 1993)
"The view of oneself as dependent, even as ‘helpless’ can be hard for many children to shake off. Those with a communication
problem may be even more entrenched in patterns of looking to others to speak for them, decide for them and of setting up their
parents, siblings and friends as more competent and more responsible than themselves. In some ways it makes for an easier life.
It also detracts from the child’s potential. Because of a communication problem a child may hang back from many everyday
interactions and lack not only the skills but the experience of fending for themselves. If mother has always asked for things in
shops or answered the telephone or spoken for the child to teachers, family members and strangers, the child will not know how
to begin." (DALTON P. 1994, page 133)
A surrogate communicator is defined as:
"An individual who assumes one or more communicative roles or provides one or more communication functions for another
person regardless of the necessity to do so." (SWEENEY L. 1991)
This is not likely to be a deliberate act of malice by the surrogate communicator but occurs for a number of other reasons:
- habit;
- care;
- a desire for success;
- embarrassment;
- impatience;
- failure to perceive potential;
- an assumption that the listener will not understand.
The shackle, in this case, has the long-term effect of promoting or maintaining passivity or both in an otherwise active person. We must not be tempted to answer for a person unless that person has given permission. There is a danger. A passive person may continually give permission for someone else to answer. In this instance, it is better the user initiates the request on each occasion. This may be a subtle signal between the augmented communicator and the person being asked to respond. Yet again, there are problems. First, a subtle signal may not be obvious to the listener. The listener may learn to answer on behalf of an augmented communicator without being given permission. Second, a passive person may learn to give the signal for another person to communicate on her or his behalf and never attempt to communicate for her or himself.
"It is not uncommon for children with delayed language development to ask their parents to speak for them when strangers
approach them, even after their speech is understood by others." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
Being aware of the pitfalls may help in avoiding these sorts of problems before they arise.
CASE STUDY: X is a superb augmented communicator. There are times when he chooses to allow his facilitator to talk on his behalf. The signal between them is subtle and would normally go unnoticed by the audience. However, either X or his carer will comment on this process so that they are aware of what is happening.
Note: Modern speech synthesizers are readily understandable and do not need others to become shackles because of the unintelligibility of the voice. There is a growing literature on intelligibility in general:
POLLACK I. & PICKETT J. 1963; POLLACK I. & PICKETT J. 1964; TIKOFSKY R. S. & TIKOFSKY R. P. 1964; YORKSTON K. M. & BEUKELMAN D. R. 1978; BEUKELMAN D. & YORKSTON K. 1980; HUBBARD D. & KUSHNER D. 1980; McGARR N. 1980; McGARR N. 1983; METZ D., SCHIAVETTI N., & SITLER R. 1980; YORKSTON K. M. & BEUKELMAN D. R. 1980; YORKSTON K. M. & BEUKELMAN D. R. 1981; YORKSTON K. M. & BEUKELMAN D. R. 1983; CLARK J. 1985; DAVIES P. & MEHAN H. 1988; HAMMEN V., YORKSTON K., & DOWDEN P. 1991; HUNTER L., PRING T., & MARTIN S. 1991; DOWDEN P. 1992; MERRILL E. & JACKSON T. 1992; DONGILLI P. 1993; DONGILLI P. 1994; KENT R., MIOLI G., & BLOEDEL S. 1994; YORKSTON K. M., HAMMEN V. L., & DOWDEN P. A. 1994; BELIVEAU C., HODGE M., & HAGLER P. 1995; MORRIS S. 1995; YORKSTON K. M., STRAND E., & KENNEDY M. 1996; DOWDEN P. 1997;
and on synthetic voices - specifically: (a) intelligibility, (b) intelligibility of and reactions to and (c) different audiences’ perceptions of. See for example:
KALIKOW D., STEVENS K., & ELLIOT L. 1997; PISONI D. & HUNNICUTT S. 1980; PISONI D. 1981; WITTEMAN B. & COLEMAN R. 1981; PISONI D. & KOEN E. 1982; CLARK J.; NUSBAUM H., SCHWAB E., & PISONI D. 1983;GREENE B., MANOUS L. & PISONI D. 1984; LEVINSON E. & KRAAT A. 1984; NUSBAUM H. & PISONI D. 1984; COXSON L. & LAIKKO P. 1985; EASTON J. 1985; LOGAN J., PISONI D., & GREENE B. 1985; MANOUS L., PISONI D., DEDINA M. & NUSBAUM H. 1985; NEILSEN P. 1985; PISONI D., NUSBAUM H., & GREENE B. 1985; PUNZI L. & KRAAT A. 1985; SCHWAB E., NUSBAUM H., & PISONI D. 1985; GREENE B. 1986; GREENE B., LOGAN J., & PISONI D. 1986; KEATING D., EVANS A., WYPER D., & CUNNINGHAM E. 1986;DOWDEN P., YORKSTON K., & STOEL-GAMMON C. 1987; HOOVER J., REICHLE J., VAN TASELL D., & COLE D. 1987; MIRENDA P. & BEUKELMAN D. 1987; PISONI D. 1987; PRATT R. 1987; GREENE B. & PISONI D. 1988; GREENSPAN S., NUSBAUM H., & PISONI D. 1988; KANNENBERG P., MARQUARDT T., & LARSON J. 1988; MARICS M. & WIILIGES B. 1988; MASSEY N. 1988; CRABTREE M. 1989; FRECKS K., BEUKELMAN D., & MIRENDA P. 1989; LOGAN J., GREENE B., & PISONI D. 1989; LOGAN J. & OZAWA K. 1989; MIRENDA P., EICHER D., & BEUKELMAN D. 1989; MITCHELL P. & ATKINS C. 1989; BRIDGES FREEMAN S. 1990; CRABTREE M., MIRENDA P., & BEUKELMAN D. 1990; DAHLE A. & GOLDMAN R. 1990; HUNTRESS L., LEE L., CREAGHEAD N., WHEELER D., & BRAVERMAN K. 1990; KANGAS K. & ALLEN G. 1990; MIRENDA P. & BEUKELMAN D. 1990; RALSTON J., PISONI D., LIVELY S., GREENE B., & MULLENNIX J. 1991; RILEY S. 1991; DUFFY S. & PISONI D. 1992; BAIRD E. 1993; DONGILLI P. 1993; KOUL R. & ALLEN G. 1993; RAGHAVENDRA P. & ALLEN G. 1993; WADKINS K. 1993; CARLSEN K., HUX K., & BEUKELMAN D. 1994; DONGILLI P. 1994; GORENFLO C., GORENFLO D., & SANTER S. 1994; HIGGINBOTHAM D. J., DRAZEK A., KOWARSKY K., SCALLY C., & SEGAL E. 1994; McNAUGHTON D., FALLON K., TOD J., WEINER F., & NEISWORTH J. 1994; VENKATAGIRI H. 1994; FUCCI D., REYNOLDS M., BETTAGERE R., & GONZALES M. 1995; HIGGINBOTHAM D. & BAIRD E. 1995; HIGGINBOTHAM D., SCALLY C., LUNDY D., & KOWARSKY K. 1995; REICH C. 1995; RUPPRECHT S., BEUKELMAN D., & VRTISKA H. 1995; SCHERZ J. & BEER M. 1995; SUTTON B., KING J., HUX K. & BEUKELMAN D. 1995; HANNERS J. 1996; REYNOLDS M., BOND Z., & FUCCI D. 1996; GORENFLO D. & GORENFLO C. 1997; KOUL R. & HANNERS J. 1997;
The earlier studies may not have included some of today’s ‘better’ synthetic voices. In the later studies cited the DECTalkJ voice Perfect Paul has the highest rating of intelligibility even in people with intellectual disabilities (See KOUL R. & HANNERS J. 1997). Some work has been done on synthetic speech in other languages (see REICH C. 1995 for example)
(JONES A.P. 1994 with apologies to OSCAR WILDE!)
Surrogate Human Augmentative Communicator - Keeping Learners Enslaved
The cartoon makes the point that it is possible to increase passivity by continuing to talk for a person long past the time when this ceases to be necessary:
"We would not, for example, expect a normally developing two year old to accurately report detailed symptomatology of an illness
to their paediatrician. However, when surrogate communicating and other cultivators of dependency extend beyond the time of
relevant need, learned helpless may result." (SWEENEY L. 1993)
"The view of oneself as dependent, even as ‘helpless’ can be hard for many children to shake off. Those with a communication
problem may be even more entrenched in patterns of looking to others to speak for them, decide for them and of setting up their
parents, siblings and friends as more competent and more responsible than themselves. In some ways it makes for an easier life.
It also detracts from the child’s potential. Because of a communication problem a child may hang back from many everyday
interactions and lack not only the skills but the experience of fending for themselves. If mother has always asked for things in
shops or answered the telephone or spoken for the child to teachers, family members and strangers, the child will not know how
to begin." (DALTON P. 1994, page 133)
A surrogate communicator is defined as:
"An individual who assumes one or more communicative roles or provides one or more communication functions for another
person regardless of the necessity to do so." (SWEENEY L. 1991)
This is not likely to be a deliberate act of malice by the surrogate communicator but occurs for a number of other reasons:
- habit;
- care;
- a desire for success;
- embarrassment;
- impatience;
- failure to perceive potential;
- an assumption that the listener will not understand.
The shackle, in this case, has the long-term effect of promoting or maintaining passivity or both in an otherwise active person. We must not be tempted to answer for a person unless that person has given permission. There is a danger. A passive person may continually give permission for someone else to answer. In this instance, it is better the user initiates the request on each occasion. This may be a subtle signal between the augmented communicator and the person being asked to respond. Yet again, there are problems. First, a subtle signal may not be obvious to the listener. The listener may learn to answer on behalf of an augmented communicator without being given permission. Second, a passive person may learn to give the signal for another person to communicate on her or his behalf and never attempt to communicate for her or himself.
"It is not uncommon for children with delayed language development to ask their parents to speak for them when strangers
approach them, even after their speech is understood by others." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
Being aware of the pitfalls may help in avoiding these sorts of problems before they arise.
CASE STUDY: X is a superb augmented communicator. There are times when he chooses to allow his facilitator to talk on his behalf. The signal between them is subtle and would normally go unnoticed by the audience. However, either X or his carer will comment on this process so that they are aware of what is happening.
Note: Modern speech synthesizers are readily understandable and do not need others to become shackles because of the unintelligibility of the voice. There is a growing literature on intelligibility in general:
POLLACK I. & PICKETT J. 1963; POLLACK I. & PICKETT J. 1964; TIKOFSKY R. S. & TIKOFSKY R. P. 1964; YORKSTON K. M. & BEUKELMAN D. R. 1978; BEUKELMAN D. & YORKSTON K. 1980; HUBBARD D. & KUSHNER D. 1980; McGARR N. 1980; McGARR N. 1983; METZ D., SCHIAVETTI N., & SITLER R. 1980; YORKSTON K. M. & BEUKELMAN D. R. 1980; YORKSTON K. M. & BEUKELMAN D. R. 1981; YORKSTON K. M. & BEUKELMAN D. R. 1983; CLARK J. 1985; DAVIES P. & MEHAN H. 1988; HAMMEN V., YORKSTON K., & DOWDEN P. 1991; HUNTER L., PRING T., & MARTIN S. 1991; DOWDEN P. 1992; MERRILL E. & JACKSON T. 1992; DONGILLI P. 1993; DONGILLI P. 1994; KENT R., MIOLI G., & BLOEDEL S. 1994; YORKSTON K. M., HAMMEN V. L., & DOWDEN P. A. 1994; BELIVEAU C., HODGE M., & HAGLER P. 1995; MORRIS S. 1995; YORKSTON K. M., STRAND E., & KENNEDY M. 1996; DOWDEN P. 1997;
and on synthetic voices - specifically: (a) intelligibility, (b) intelligibility of and reactions to and (c) different audiences’ perceptions of. See for example:
KALIKOW D., STEVENS K., & ELLIOT L. 1997; PISONI D. & HUNNICUTT S. 1980; PISONI D. 1981; WITTEMAN B. & COLEMAN R. 1981; PISONI D. & KOEN E. 1982; CLARK J.; NUSBAUM H., SCHWAB E., & PISONI D. 1983;GREENE B., MANOUS L. & PISONI D. 1984; LEVINSON E. & KRAAT A. 1984; NUSBAUM H. & PISONI D. 1984; COXSON L. & LAIKKO P. 1985; EASTON J. 1985; LOGAN J., PISONI D., & GREENE B. 1985; MANOUS L., PISONI D., DEDINA M. & NUSBAUM H. 1985; NEILSEN P. 1985; PISONI D., NUSBAUM H., & GREENE B. 1985; PUNZI L. & KRAAT A. 1985; SCHWAB E., NUSBAUM H., & PISONI D. 1985; GREENE B. 1986; GREENE B., LOGAN J., & PISONI D. 1986; KEATING D., EVANS A., WYPER D., & CUNNINGHAM E. 1986;DOWDEN P., YORKSTON K., & STOEL-GAMMON C. 1987; HOOVER J., REICHLE J., VAN TASELL D., & COLE D. 1987; MIRENDA P. & BEUKELMAN D. 1987; PISONI D. 1987; PRATT R. 1987; GREENE B. & PISONI D. 1988; GREENSPAN S., NUSBAUM H., & PISONI D. 1988; KANNENBERG P., MARQUARDT T., & LARSON J. 1988; MARICS M. & WIILIGES B. 1988; MASSEY N. 1988; CRABTREE M. 1989; FRECKS K., BEUKELMAN D., & MIRENDA P. 1989; LOGAN J., GREENE B., & PISONI D. 1989; LOGAN J. & OZAWA K. 1989; MIRENDA P., EICHER D., & BEUKELMAN D. 1989; MITCHELL P. & ATKINS C. 1989; BRIDGES FREEMAN S. 1990; CRABTREE M., MIRENDA P., & BEUKELMAN D. 1990; DAHLE A. & GOLDMAN R. 1990; HUNTRESS L., LEE L., CREAGHEAD N., WHEELER D., & BRAVERMAN K. 1990; KANGAS K. & ALLEN G. 1990; MIRENDA P. & BEUKELMAN D. 1990; RALSTON J., PISONI D., LIVELY S., GREENE B., & MULLENNIX J. 1991; RILEY S. 1991; DUFFY S. & PISONI D. 1992; BAIRD E. 1993; DONGILLI P. 1993; KOUL R. & ALLEN G. 1993; RAGHAVENDRA P. & ALLEN G. 1993; WADKINS K. 1993; CARLSEN K., HUX K., & BEUKELMAN D. 1994; DONGILLI P. 1994; GORENFLO C., GORENFLO D., & SANTER S. 1994; HIGGINBOTHAM D. J., DRAZEK A., KOWARSKY K., SCALLY C., & SEGAL E. 1994; McNAUGHTON D., FALLON K., TOD J., WEINER F., & NEISWORTH J. 1994; VENKATAGIRI H. 1994; FUCCI D., REYNOLDS M., BETTAGERE R., & GONZALES M. 1995; HIGGINBOTHAM D. & BAIRD E. 1995; HIGGINBOTHAM D., SCALLY C., LUNDY D., & KOWARSKY K. 1995; REICH C. 1995; RUPPRECHT S., BEUKELMAN D., & VRTISKA H. 1995; SCHERZ J. & BEER M. 1995; SUTTON B., KING J., HUX K. & BEUKELMAN D. 1995; HANNERS J. 1996; REYNOLDS M., BOND Z., & FUCCI D. 1996; GORENFLO D. & GORENFLO C. 1997; KOUL R. & HANNERS J. 1997;
The earlier studies may not have included some of today’s ‘better’ synthetic voices. In the later studies cited the DECTalkJ voice Perfect Paul has the highest rating of intelligibility even in people with intellectual disabilities (See KOUL R. & HANNERS J. 1997). Some work has been done on synthetic speech in other languages (see REICH C. 1995 for example)
PASSIVE 7 - Control Yourself
"...learners with disabilities are taught to be compliant, to follow the instructions of others. Compliance training is not considered
complete until it generalizes across persons and directives, so that any stranger can give the learner any instruction and get
compliance." (SIGAFOOS J. & REICHLE J. 1991)
"Learned helplessness occurs when it is unclear to the learner that he or she is unable to exert control over the environment.
Guess, Benson, & Siegel-Causey (1985) suggest that learners who exhibit helplessness see no relationship between their
actions and environmental outcomes." (REICHLE J. 1991 p. 141)
"The primary intervention strategy used to remedy learned helplessness involves the establishment of the learner’s contingent
control over some aspect or aspects of the environment." (REICHLE J. 1991 p. 141)
"The provision of positive control experiences early in life will be a primary factor in helplessness immunization. Vocabulary
selection for and design features of AAC systems can significantly change the level of personal power and control available to
the augmented communicator." (SWEENEY L. 1993)
Allowing and creating situations in which an individual can take control is an important tool to be used against the threat of passivity. The augmented communicator requires a vocabulary which permits directions to be given, allows for flexibility in approach and may be reasonably rapidly presented.
CASE STUDY: While teaching some of the lexical verbs to students at a college the therapist and the tutor gave control of the situation to each of the students in turn. First they had to pick a particular verb and speak it out loud. Then they had to say AGO”. The therapist and the tutor had to act out the verb until the student said ASTOP”. ‘Kiss’ was a popular verb with everyone concerned!
CASE STUDY: A tutor had told staff that should a student ask for or demand something then, in order the student experience control and understand communication has consequences, the staff should act on the demand. A short time later on entering a classroom the same tutor found a student with tears rolling down his face because he was laughing so much. He was saying ACan I have a glass of water please?” over and over again and the staff were obeying his commands. He had about six glasses of water in front of him. When the tutor asked the staff what they were doing they said they were simply doing what he had told them! However, if a three-year-old had a glass of coke in front of him and then asked for another most parents would say AWhen you drink that .” Why should this student be any different? Everyone saw the funny side of the situation. Best of all the student never forgot how to generate ‘Can I have a glass of water?’ from its component elements. He had experienced real control though communication.
Creating regular opportunities for individuals to make decisions or to take control (using their AAC systems) is important because they provide an element of choice, a situation in which new vocabulary may be taught, and the necessary experience which is so vital if passivity is to be kept at bay.
For example:
- While shopping - AWhat shall we buy next?” AWhere shall we go next?” - AYou get the coffee this week. Remind me or I’ll forget.”
- Meals - AWhat shall we have for tea today?” AWhat time shall we eat?”
- Problem solving - AYou tell me what to do and I’ll do it.”
- Television - AIt’s your turn to decide what we are going to watch tonight.”
- Leisure - AWhat shall we do this evening?” AWhere shall we go?”
- A VOCA - AYou take control over cleaning and charging. You must tell me when they need doing.”
Remember, giving control:
- without the appropriate vocabulary is a futile exercise;
- and then taking it away again is a waste of everybody’s time. If you ask someone what they want to eat and they say
Acake with cold baked beans on top” - give it to them. They deserve it for being able to say it! Don’t say, AOh no you can’t have
that.”;
- but not seeing it through does not help a person to achieve responsibility. If you remember to buy the coffee (as in the first
example) without the user’s prompt then the process is invalidated.
complete until it generalizes across persons and directives, so that any stranger can give the learner any instruction and get
compliance." (SIGAFOOS J. & REICHLE J. 1991)
"Learned helplessness occurs when it is unclear to the learner that he or she is unable to exert control over the environment.
Guess, Benson, & Siegel-Causey (1985) suggest that learners who exhibit helplessness see no relationship between their
actions and environmental outcomes." (REICHLE J. 1991 p. 141)
"The primary intervention strategy used to remedy learned helplessness involves the establishment of the learner’s contingent
control over some aspect or aspects of the environment." (REICHLE J. 1991 p. 141)
"The provision of positive control experiences early in life will be a primary factor in helplessness immunization. Vocabulary
selection for and design features of AAC systems can significantly change the level of personal power and control available to
the augmented communicator." (SWEENEY L. 1993)
Allowing and creating situations in which an individual can take control is an important tool to be used against the threat of passivity. The augmented communicator requires a vocabulary which permits directions to be given, allows for flexibility in approach and may be reasonably rapidly presented.
CASE STUDY: While teaching some of the lexical verbs to students at a college the therapist and the tutor gave control of the situation to each of the students in turn. First they had to pick a particular verb and speak it out loud. Then they had to say AGO”. The therapist and the tutor had to act out the verb until the student said ASTOP”. ‘Kiss’ was a popular verb with everyone concerned!
CASE STUDY: A tutor had told staff that should a student ask for or demand something then, in order the student experience control and understand communication has consequences, the staff should act on the demand. A short time later on entering a classroom the same tutor found a student with tears rolling down his face because he was laughing so much. He was saying ACan I have a glass of water please?” over and over again and the staff were obeying his commands. He had about six glasses of water in front of him. When the tutor asked the staff what they were doing they said they were simply doing what he had told them! However, if a three-year-old had a glass of coke in front of him and then asked for another most parents would say AWhen you drink that .” Why should this student be any different? Everyone saw the funny side of the situation. Best of all the student never forgot how to generate ‘Can I have a glass of water?’ from its component elements. He had experienced real control though communication.
Creating regular opportunities for individuals to make decisions or to take control (using their AAC systems) is important because they provide an element of choice, a situation in which new vocabulary may be taught, and the necessary experience which is so vital if passivity is to be kept at bay.
For example:
- While shopping - AWhat shall we buy next?” AWhere shall we go next?” - AYou get the coffee this week. Remind me or I’ll forget.”
- Meals - AWhat shall we have for tea today?” AWhat time shall we eat?”
- Problem solving - AYou tell me what to do and I’ll do it.”
- Television - AIt’s your turn to decide what we are going to watch tonight.”
- Leisure - AWhat shall we do this evening?” AWhere shall we go?”
- A VOCA - AYou take control over cleaning and charging. You must tell me when they need doing.”
Remember, giving control:
- without the appropriate vocabulary is a futile exercise;
- and then taking it away again is a waste of everybody’s time. If you ask someone what they want to eat and they say
Acake with cold baked beans on top” - give it to them. They deserve it for being able to say it! Don’t say, AOh no you can’t have
that.”;
- but not seeing it through does not help a person to achieve responsibility. If you remember to buy the coffee (as in the first
example) without the user’s prompt then the process is invalidated.
PASSIVE 8 - Encourage further communication
Some individuals have learned only to respond to another’s initiation and do not initiate:
"The problem may also be due to the fact that they have only learned to answer others, not to take the initiative themselves:
a form of learned dependence." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
Some individual’s will go out of their way to avoid social interactions with others:
"Suffice it to say, at this point, that extreme anxiety in the anticipation of speech failure may cause young people to avoid
situations to such an extent that they become social isolates." (DALTON P. 1994 page 3)
This personal avoidance strategy may be further compounded and reinforced by the stereotypical behaviours of others and the institutionalization of the individual. Thus, the situation can become a vicious circle:
- people may avoid communicating with an individual because the individual’s communication is impaired and slow
(REICHLE J. 1988);
- as people do not take the opportunity to communicate with the individual, the individual does not get the real-time
opportunity to practise nor does she or he see the need to do so;
- thus, the individual’s communication skills do not improve and she or he may begin to fear social interchange;
- as the individual’s communication skills have not improved people avoid stopping to communicate with him or her.
The individual may also actively avoid situations in which social interchange is likely.
This vicious circle may lead people to overuse the closed question format (a question that can be answered with a yes or a no) when ‘forced’ into communicating with an individual with a severe communication impairment. The closed question format is itself problematic (see following chapter on the use of closed questions) and may be a factor in promoting passivity in individuals and, when individuals have become passive, people tend to use the closed question format more often.
Many augmented communicators do not readily initiate conversation (See LOVAAS O., KOEGEL R., SIMMONS J., & LONG J. 1973; SCHAEFFER B. 1978; SOSNE J., HANDLEMAN J., & HARRIS S. 1979; BEUKELMAN D. & YORKSTON K. 1982; BUZOLICH M. 1982; CALCULATOR S. & DOLLAGHAN C. 1982; CARR E. 1982; HARRIS D. 1982; OLIVER C. & HALLE J. 1982; CARR E. & KOLOGINSKY E. 1983; CALCULATOR S. & LUCHKO C. 1983; BUZOLICH M. 1985; CHARLOP M., SCHREIBMAN L., & THIBODEAU M. 1985; LIGHT J. , COLLIER B. , & PARNES P. 1985; GOBBI L., CIPANI E., HUDSON C., & LAPENTA-NEUDECK R. 1986; HALLE J. 1987; BUZOLICH M. & WIEMANN J. 1988; CALCULATOR S. 1988; WARRICK A. 1988; HAMILTON B. & SNELL M. 1993; SWEENEY L. & ENGWIS P. 1996)When possible, people who have become passive should be encouraged to communicate further. The person who is beginning to use an AAC system and does not normally initiate conversation may be encouraged to say more through the creative use of questions:
ADad’s coming! Oh when is he coming Sam?”
AWhat’s he coming for?”
AWho’s coming with him?”
AHow is he getting here?”
The opening remark need not be made by an AAC system but perhaps through unaided communication - body language, pointing, etc:
User points to video
AYour video? What about your video”
Attempt at vocalisation
ASorry Jane I don’t understand. Can you tell me another way?”
Jane frowns and looks down
ACome on Jane. Don’t give up. We could use your Bliss board. Is it OK if I get it out for you?”
Jane smiles. Facilitator takes out board.
ANow Jane. Tell me about the video.”
"The problem may also be due to the fact that they have only learned to answer others, not to take the initiative themselves:
a form of learned dependence." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
Some individual’s will go out of their way to avoid social interactions with others:
"Suffice it to say, at this point, that extreme anxiety in the anticipation of speech failure may cause young people to avoid
situations to such an extent that they become social isolates." (DALTON P. 1994 page 3)
This personal avoidance strategy may be further compounded and reinforced by the stereotypical behaviours of others and the institutionalization of the individual. Thus, the situation can become a vicious circle:
- people may avoid communicating with an individual because the individual’s communication is impaired and slow
(REICHLE J. 1988);
- as people do not take the opportunity to communicate with the individual, the individual does not get the real-time
opportunity to practise nor does she or he see the need to do so;
- thus, the individual’s communication skills do not improve and she or he may begin to fear social interchange;
- as the individual’s communication skills have not improved people avoid stopping to communicate with him or her.
The individual may also actively avoid situations in which social interchange is likely.
This vicious circle may lead people to overuse the closed question format (a question that can be answered with a yes or a no) when ‘forced’ into communicating with an individual with a severe communication impairment. The closed question format is itself problematic (see following chapter on the use of closed questions) and may be a factor in promoting passivity in individuals and, when individuals have become passive, people tend to use the closed question format more often.
Many augmented communicators do not readily initiate conversation (See LOVAAS O., KOEGEL R., SIMMONS J., & LONG J. 1973; SCHAEFFER B. 1978; SOSNE J., HANDLEMAN J., & HARRIS S. 1979; BEUKELMAN D. & YORKSTON K. 1982; BUZOLICH M. 1982; CALCULATOR S. & DOLLAGHAN C. 1982; CARR E. 1982; HARRIS D. 1982; OLIVER C. & HALLE J. 1982; CARR E. & KOLOGINSKY E. 1983; CALCULATOR S. & LUCHKO C. 1983; BUZOLICH M. 1985; CHARLOP M., SCHREIBMAN L., & THIBODEAU M. 1985; LIGHT J. , COLLIER B. , & PARNES P. 1985; GOBBI L., CIPANI E., HUDSON C., & LAPENTA-NEUDECK R. 1986; HALLE J. 1987; BUZOLICH M. & WIEMANN J. 1988; CALCULATOR S. 1988; WARRICK A. 1988; HAMILTON B. & SNELL M. 1993; SWEENEY L. & ENGWIS P. 1996)When possible, people who have become passive should be encouraged to communicate further. The person who is beginning to use an AAC system and does not normally initiate conversation may be encouraged to say more through the creative use of questions:
ADad’s coming! Oh when is he coming Sam?”
AWhat’s he coming for?”
AWho’s coming with him?”
AHow is he getting here?”
The opening remark need not be made by an AAC system but perhaps through unaided communication - body language, pointing, etc:
User points to video
AYour video? What about your video”
Attempt at vocalisation
ASorry Jane I don’t understand. Can you tell me another way?”
Jane frowns and looks down
ACome on Jane. Don’t give up. We could use your Bliss board. Is it OK if I get it out for you?”
Jane smiles. Facilitator takes out board.
ANow Jane. Tell me about the video.”
PASSIVE 9 - Laugh and be merry...
"The man that hath no music in himself,
Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds,
Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils.
The motions of his spirit are dull as night,
And his affections dark as Erebus.
Let no such man be trusted.
(SHAKESPEARE W. - Lorenzo’s line in The Merchant of Venice - Act 5, Scene.1 - responding to Jessica’s remark, AI am never merry when I hear sweet music.”)
"Good music is very close to primitive language." (DIDEROT D. 1875)
"From childhood and throughout life, feelings of self-sufficiency, self-respect and worth are closely related to the ability to express
oneself. The perception of oneself as independent and equal to others is related to the ability to tell of one’s needs, concerns, and
feelings. People who are unable to do this lose control over their own fate. Their experience is that other people underestimate
them - talk down to them, humour them, and make decisions for them - thus reinforcing their feeling of being second class citizens.
For the most severely disabled, such negative experiences may - together with inconsistent and infrequent reactions to their
wants - lead to learned passivity and extensive dependency on others. For them, the ability to communicate means an increased
understanding of the world, the possibility of expressing their needs, and a higher level of activity. Providing an alternative mode of
communication for speechless children and adults increases their quality of life." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
The cartoon was created in response to a real life event:
CASE STUDY: A head teacher at a special school told the speech professional that all the songs stored in the VOCAs must be removed as they were ‘disruptive and unnecessary’. The therapist phoned to ask what she should do and for advice to persuade the head teacher that singing is valuable.
What would you have done? The case study above raises several issues:
The songs are disruptive.
The behaviour of the pupils concerned is disruptive. Any child may choose to sing in class. Most have learnt not to do so. The
children have not learnt this because they have never been able to disrupt in this manner before. Therefore, the head teacher
should consider the behaviour itself. Stopping the children singing at inappropriate times is not best achieved by removing the songs.
The pupils are singing.
Wow! This is wonderful! They are using the system. They are correctly selecting the appropriate symbols to activate the songs.
They are choosing the wrong time to do it but they need to learn that the classroom may not be a good place to sing. They are
being creative. The songs are a means of self-expression. The pupils are displaying self-esteem through the medium of song
(see Maslow’s hierarchy of needs earlier in this text). This should have been a time to celebrate not one of criticism.
"From childhood and throughout life, feelings of self-sufficiency, self-respect and worth are closely related to the ability to express
oneself." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
Songs are unimportant.
The songs on the system were used to reinforce the vocabulary in the device stored using the same symbols. Thus singing ‘I can
sing a rainbow’ by activating a sequence containing a picture of a rainbow can reinforce the fact that colour names have been
categorised using this symbol. Ask the wife of ‘the man who mistook his wife for a hat’ how important songs are to him:
" He sings all the time - eating songs, dressing songs, bathing songs, everything. He can’t do anything unless he makes it a song."
(SACKS O. 1985 page 16)
How important is music to you? A song is a means of self expression (See MUSSELWHITE C. R. 1988; HENSMAN-KING J. 1992).
CASE STUDY: Suddenly, when walking back from a trip to a pub with a user one evening, and without any prompting, he burst into song. The return trip from the pub was brightened by his choice of song. I thought how typical this was. Here was a young man singing with joy just as any young person may do - especially after a beer or two.
The songs should be removed
Oh dear! How close is this to saying that this behaviour is upsetting the routine. What is an appropriate response to any pupil
singing in class? Remove the pupil’s vocal chords? Of course not. Find out why the pupil is singing. Applaud the pupil’s joy at life.
Help the pupil to see that at this very moment, as we are trying to explain the intricacies of the digestive system, a song is
inappropriate and may be distracting the other pupils. Do not remove the vocabulary rather deal appropriately with the behaviour.
Why are the pupils singing?
The head does not appear to have asked this question. Are they bored in lessons? Are they joyous? Is the ability to sing, being so
new, so powerful?
When will the singing stop?
The likelihood is that, as they have never been able to sing before, singing is more motivating to the pupils than the present activity.
A child with a new toy is apt to play with it. The children in this school had only just been given the songs. What should we expect
them to do but sing especially as this was the first time in their lives that they had been able to do so.
CASE STUDY: Singing was introduced to the students at a college for special needs who had VOCAs. They sang! The singing started in one classroom and then others hearing it began singing the same song. Very soon there was a round going on. A few staff made some negative comments but no-one suggested that the songs should be removed. After a few weeks, all students sang less and at more appropriate times and college returned to a normal routine.
Whose voice is it anyway?
This is a fundamental human rights issue. My voice is my voice, it does not belong to you or to anyone else. It does not belong to
any member of staff.
Home, home on the range where the ...
Listen to the sound of silence! There is a real danger of creating passivity through suppression of liberty.
I’m in two minds about this ...
It has been known for some time that the two cerebral hemispheres specialise (See SPRINGER S. & DEUTSCH G. 1989). In the
vast majority of people language is one of the prime functions of the left hemisphere. However, musical ability is normally
associated with the right hemisphere:
"He had an attack of a violent illness which resulted in a paralysis of the entire right side of the body and complete loss of speech.
He can sing certain hymns, which he had learned before he became ill, as clearly and distinctly as any healthy person .... Yet
this man is dumb, cannot say a single word except 'yes'" (DALIN O. 1745)
The ability to sing or to recite verse after a stroke which severely impairs other language functions would suggest a right cerebral hemisphere specialization (GATES A. & BRADSHAW J. 1977). Music could, therefore, be used as a medium for a complementary approach to language instruction for people with delayed or impaired language abilities (See for example the work on Music Intonation Therapy (MIT) by SPARKS R., HELM N., & ALBERT M. 1974; SPARKS R. & HOLLAND A. 1976. See also DAVIES B. 1964; EISENSON J. 1984; HELFRICH-MILLER K. 1984; BLOCKBERGER S. & BOVAIRD WAWRYKOW C. 1987; McCONNELL J. 1987; FRAME C. 1991; McMAHON F. & MATTHEWS S. 1991; ROBERTSON P. 1993; THOMAS K. 1996)
PS As I write this I still do not know how the above situation has been resolved.
Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds,
Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils.
The motions of his spirit are dull as night,
And his affections dark as Erebus.
Let no such man be trusted.
(SHAKESPEARE W. - Lorenzo’s line in The Merchant of Venice - Act 5, Scene.1 - responding to Jessica’s remark, AI am never merry when I hear sweet music.”)
"Good music is very close to primitive language." (DIDEROT D. 1875)
"From childhood and throughout life, feelings of self-sufficiency, self-respect and worth are closely related to the ability to express
oneself. The perception of oneself as independent and equal to others is related to the ability to tell of one’s needs, concerns, and
feelings. People who are unable to do this lose control over their own fate. Their experience is that other people underestimate
them - talk down to them, humour them, and make decisions for them - thus reinforcing their feeling of being second class citizens.
For the most severely disabled, such negative experiences may - together with inconsistent and infrequent reactions to their
wants - lead to learned passivity and extensive dependency on others. For them, the ability to communicate means an increased
understanding of the world, the possibility of expressing their needs, and a higher level of activity. Providing an alternative mode of
communication for speechless children and adults increases their quality of life." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
The cartoon was created in response to a real life event:
CASE STUDY: A head teacher at a special school told the speech professional that all the songs stored in the VOCAs must be removed as they were ‘disruptive and unnecessary’. The therapist phoned to ask what she should do and for advice to persuade the head teacher that singing is valuable.
What would you have done? The case study above raises several issues:
The songs are disruptive.
The behaviour of the pupils concerned is disruptive. Any child may choose to sing in class. Most have learnt not to do so. The
children have not learnt this because they have never been able to disrupt in this manner before. Therefore, the head teacher
should consider the behaviour itself. Stopping the children singing at inappropriate times is not best achieved by removing the songs.
The pupils are singing.
Wow! This is wonderful! They are using the system. They are correctly selecting the appropriate symbols to activate the songs.
They are choosing the wrong time to do it but they need to learn that the classroom may not be a good place to sing. They are
being creative. The songs are a means of self-expression. The pupils are displaying self-esteem through the medium of song
(see Maslow’s hierarchy of needs earlier in this text). This should have been a time to celebrate not one of criticism.
"From childhood and throughout life, feelings of self-sufficiency, self-respect and worth are closely related to the ability to express
oneself." (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
Songs are unimportant.
The songs on the system were used to reinforce the vocabulary in the device stored using the same symbols. Thus singing ‘I can
sing a rainbow’ by activating a sequence containing a picture of a rainbow can reinforce the fact that colour names have been
categorised using this symbol. Ask the wife of ‘the man who mistook his wife for a hat’ how important songs are to him:
" He sings all the time - eating songs, dressing songs, bathing songs, everything. He can’t do anything unless he makes it a song."
(SACKS O. 1985 page 16)
How important is music to you? A song is a means of self expression (See MUSSELWHITE C. R. 1988; HENSMAN-KING J. 1992).
CASE STUDY: Suddenly, when walking back from a trip to a pub with a user one evening, and without any prompting, he burst into song. The return trip from the pub was brightened by his choice of song. I thought how typical this was. Here was a young man singing with joy just as any young person may do - especially after a beer or two.
The songs should be removed
Oh dear! How close is this to saying that this behaviour is upsetting the routine. What is an appropriate response to any pupil
singing in class? Remove the pupil’s vocal chords? Of course not. Find out why the pupil is singing. Applaud the pupil’s joy at life.
Help the pupil to see that at this very moment, as we are trying to explain the intricacies of the digestive system, a song is
inappropriate and may be distracting the other pupils. Do not remove the vocabulary rather deal appropriately with the behaviour.
Why are the pupils singing?
The head does not appear to have asked this question. Are they bored in lessons? Are they joyous? Is the ability to sing, being so
new, so powerful?
When will the singing stop?
The likelihood is that, as they have never been able to sing before, singing is more motivating to the pupils than the present activity.
A child with a new toy is apt to play with it. The children in this school had only just been given the songs. What should we expect
them to do but sing especially as this was the first time in their lives that they had been able to do so.
CASE STUDY: Singing was introduced to the students at a college for special needs who had VOCAs. They sang! The singing started in one classroom and then others hearing it began singing the same song. Very soon there was a round going on. A few staff made some negative comments but no-one suggested that the songs should be removed. After a few weeks, all students sang less and at more appropriate times and college returned to a normal routine.
Whose voice is it anyway?
This is a fundamental human rights issue. My voice is my voice, it does not belong to you or to anyone else. It does not belong to
any member of staff.
Home, home on the range where the ...
Listen to the sound of silence! There is a real danger of creating passivity through suppression of liberty.
I’m in two minds about this ...
It has been known for some time that the two cerebral hemispheres specialise (See SPRINGER S. & DEUTSCH G. 1989). In the
vast majority of people language is one of the prime functions of the left hemisphere. However, musical ability is normally
associated with the right hemisphere:
"He had an attack of a violent illness which resulted in a paralysis of the entire right side of the body and complete loss of speech.
He can sing certain hymns, which he had learned before he became ill, as clearly and distinctly as any healthy person .... Yet
this man is dumb, cannot say a single word except 'yes'" (DALIN O. 1745)
The ability to sing or to recite verse after a stroke which severely impairs other language functions would suggest a right cerebral hemisphere specialization (GATES A. & BRADSHAW J. 1977). Music could, therefore, be used as a medium for a complementary approach to language instruction for people with delayed or impaired language abilities (See for example the work on Music Intonation Therapy (MIT) by SPARKS R., HELM N., & ALBERT M. 1974; SPARKS R. & HOLLAND A. 1976. See also DAVIES B. 1964; EISENSON J. 1984; HELFRICH-MILLER K. 1984; BLOCKBERGER S. & BOVAIRD WAWRYKOW C. 1987; McCONNELL J. 1987; FRAME C. 1991; McMAHON F. & MATTHEWS S. 1991; ROBERTSON P. 1993; THOMAS K. 1996)
PS As I write this I still do not know how the above situation has been resolved.