Open & Closed Questions
The writers have found culturally deprived children to be strangely indifferent to the content of verbal utterances while being acutely concerned with the effect that their utterances have on other people. A question that begins with ‘Can you tell’ - or ‘Do you know’ is invariably answered ‘Yes’, often before it is completed. These beginnings are evidently recognized as signals that ‘yes’ is the desired answer. Yes-No questions have to be used with great circumspection in the teaching of these children because the children are so adept at and intent upon ‘reading’ the teacher’s expressions and inflections for clues to the desired response. The children may even succeed in giving correct answers without fully understanding what yes and no mean. (BEREITER C. & ENGELMANN S. 1966, p. 37)
Several investigations (HARRIS D. 1978; LIGHT J., COLLIER B., & PARNES P. 1985) have demonstrated that speaking partners tend to engage in communicative exchanges that require the learner simply to confirm or deny the vocal mode user’s statements. This strategy speeds up an interaction, but provides the learner with very limited experience in learning to direct an exchange by steering the topic in a new direction. It also limits opportunities to teach symbol combinations that may be part of the graphic mode system. Furthermore, it limits the amount of time the graphic mode user can practice using his or her augmentative system (REICHLE J. 1991 p. 152)
For children who have grown up with answers to questions as their only communication strategy it is difficult to learn to use language in new ways (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
Multiple factors influence the success of literacy and language learning in the classroom. These influences include ......... teacher-student interactions that extend beyond yes/no questioning and encourage students to initiate and sustain interactions. (ERICKSON K. & STAPLES A. 1995 p. 4)
A closed question is one that may be answered by either ‘yes’ or ‘no’
An open question is open that requires a response other than ‘yes’ or ‘no’:
ADo you want tea?” CLOSED
AWhat do you want to drink?” OPEN
ADid you watch TV last night?” CLOSED
AWhat did you watch last night?” OPEN
ADid you go shopping at the weekend?” CLOSED
AWhat did you do at the weekend?” OPEN
Among users of graphic mode systems, it has been well documented that when a learner’s partner produces an utterance to which the learner fails to respond, the partner will frequently alter his or her interactional style and ask a series of questions that can be answered Ayes” or Ano”..... There is evidence to suggest that many users of augmentative systems tend to match specific classes of communicative opportunities with the response that is the least physically demanding to perform. Second, the learner may lack sufficient vocabulary to provide the flexibility required to generate an answer. When the conversational load begins to fall too heavily on the verbal mode participant, he or she may begin to shorten periods of interaction with the augmentative system user, or even avoid interactions (REICHLE J. 1988). The burden of carrying the interaction cannot be borne inordinately by one member of the dyad. If this happens, the quality, if not the quantity, of the interactions may be jeopardized. (REICHLE J. 1991, pp. 150-152)
This section of the IMPACT manual deals with the dangers of over-use of the closed question format and offers alternative suggestions. In some instances the ability to provide a yes/no response is a positive step forward and should not be devalued or stopped (see for example KEENAN J. & BARNHART K. 1993).
Several investigations (HARRIS D. 1978; LIGHT J., COLLIER B., & PARNES P. 1985) have demonstrated that speaking partners tend to engage in communicative exchanges that require the learner simply to confirm or deny the vocal mode user’s statements. This strategy speeds up an interaction, but provides the learner with very limited experience in learning to direct an exchange by steering the topic in a new direction. It also limits opportunities to teach symbol combinations that may be part of the graphic mode system. Furthermore, it limits the amount of time the graphic mode user can practice using his or her augmentative system (REICHLE J. 1991 p. 152)
For children who have grown up with answers to questions as their only communication strategy it is difficult to learn to use language in new ways (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
Multiple factors influence the success of literacy and language learning in the classroom. These influences include ......... teacher-student interactions that extend beyond yes/no questioning and encourage students to initiate and sustain interactions. (ERICKSON K. & STAPLES A. 1995 p. 4)
A closed question is one that may be answered by either ‘yes’ or ‘no’
An open question is open that requires a response other than ‘yes’ or ‘no’:
ADo you want tea?” CLOSED
AWhat do you want to drink?” OPEN
ADid you watch TV last night?” CLOSED
AWhat did you watch last night?” OPEN
ADid you go shopping at the weekend?” CLOSED
AWhat did you do at the weekend?” OPEN
Among users of graphic mode systems, it has been well documented that when a learner’s partner produces an utterance to which the learner fails to respond, the partner will frequently alter his or her interactional style and ask a series of questions that can be answered Ayes” or Ano”..... There is evidence to suggest that many users of augmentative systems tend to match specific classes of communicative opportunities with the response that is the least physically demanding to perform. Second, the learner may lack sufficient vocabulary to provide the flexibility required to generate an answer. When the conversational load begins to fall too heavily on the verbal mode participant, he or she may begin to shorten periods of interaction with the augmentative system user, or even avoid interactions (REICHLE J. 1988). The burden of carrying the interaction cannot be borne inordinately by one member of the dyad. If this happens, the quality, if not the quantity, of the interactions may be jeopardized. (REICHLE J. 1991, pp. 150-152)
This section of the IMPACT manual deals with the dangers of over-use of the closed question format and offers alternative suggestions. In some instances the ability to provide a yes/no response is a positive step forward and should not be devalued or stopped (see for example KEENAN J. & BARNHART K. 1993).
OPEN 2 - Task & Discussion Sheet
Uncover theinformation section. Allow staff time to study the given definitions of the terms used. Give further explanations and examples if necessary. Uncover the Tasks. Allow the staff time (5 - 10 minutes is reasonable) to complete the tasks given. Ask each member of staff to give one example of a closed question they have written and to state its open equivalent. Work through the two discussion topics offered. Some important points are outlined below.
It may be assumed that the closed question format is faster and more effective than its open equivalent but this is not necessarily the case. A yes response does not mean that there is comprehension and the tutor may be fooled into proceeding on this basis. We have all had experience of using ‘yes’ in response to an uncomprehended situation. For example - You are sitting next to a perfect stranger on a bus. He begins to talk. You do not understand his words. You say AI’m sorry, I didn’t quite catch that.” He repeats the message. Again you find his accent and the message incomprehensible. Ask the staff what they would do. Some people will smile and nod their head and try to bluff it. If the stranger smiles everything is assumed to be OK. If he frowns we may change our response. The ‘yes’ response here does not confirm understanding.
The closed question format is commonplace. Studies have suggested that classroom talk is dominated by teachers’ questions and these are often of the closed type whereas the open question format would have had many advantages (NUTHALL G. & CHURCH J. 1973; BLANK M., ROSE S., & BERLIN L. 1978; REDFIELD D. & ROUSSEAU E. 1981;):
Observations of teacher questions addressed to children of widely different ages and in a variety of disciplines have led to the conclusion that teacher questions are more often of the ‘closed’ type with known right answers. The responses to such questions by pupils are likely to be terse and simply correct or incorrect. When pupils answer a teacher’s questions, they usually say no more and stop talking. Consequently, where such specific, closed questions are frequent, children will say little. ...... Frequent, specific questions tend to generate relatively silent children and to inhibit any discussion between them. Telling children things, giving an opinion, view, speculation or idea, stimulates more talk, questions and ideas from pupils and generates discussion between them. If all this sounds obvious, then explain why so many studies have found that classroom talk is dominated by teacher questions. (WOOD D. 1988 pp. 142 - 143)
Further, people who use AAC systems are asked many more yes or no questions than their vocal peers (SUTTON A. 1982; HARRIS D. 1978; LIGHT J., COLLIER B., & PARNES P. 1985; BASIL C. 1986).
For example, adults who interact with users of augmentative systems often over-use yes/no questions. These interactions are problematic for several reasons. First they place the learner in the role of a responder (LIGHT J., COLLIER B., & PARNES P. 1985). The learner is taught to wait until a specific question is asked before responding. As a result, users of augmentative or alternative systems tend to be poor initiators of interactions (LIGHT et al. 1985) Another adverse consequence of the over-use of yes/no questions is the limited vocabulary it demands. (REICHLE J. 1991a)
It may be assumed that there is a 50% chance of being correct when responding to a closed question such as ‘Is Paris the capital of France?’ My own experience in this area suggests that, if a person learns to respond to any closed question with Ayes”, she or he will be correct a far greater proportion of the time. Approximately 90% of closed questions require a yes response. That is, when people frame closed questions the response that is typically required is ‘yes’.
Children are eager to please. They soon learn to give the expected response to an adult who is asking them a question. Nodding the head is a very good strategy. It tends to please people. It does not follow, however, that the child understands the question or knows the answer. Be wary.
The closed question is not always faster or more efficient because an assumption of understanding based on a yes or no response may be misleading. Progression to higher levels of learning should always be based on a knowledge that all the important concepts previously taught have been understood. The closed question format does not guarantee this.
The person responding with the yes or no answer is not necessary being untruthful. The person may have ‘got hold of the wrong end of the stick’. Consider this example. I hold an empty glass in my hand. I tell you this is an example of the Senojian word ‘psarg’. You understand that ‘psarg’ is Senojian for glass. I pick up another glass and hold it firmly in my hand. I ask you if this is ‘psarg’ and you respond with a nod of the head. I smile. I am pleased you have understood. However, we are both wrong. ‘Psarg’ means ‘to hold tightly’. You were not trying to mislead me when you gave the positive response. I misled myself.
The closed question format does not encourage the use of an AAC system. The majority of people with a severe communication impairment have a positive yes or no response. There will be no need for them to use an AAC system if all communication interactions are framed as yes or no questions. T he closed question format is typically used with people who are passive. It is unclear whether passivity promotes the use of the closed question format or the closed question format promotes passivity. Perhaps the relationship is mutually reinforcing and, once again, is a vicious circle.
Open questions should be used wheneverpossible because they:
C demand an AAC response;
C allow a greater certainty of understanding;
C help promote an active rather than a passive communication style.
The closed question is faster when time is pressing and when we can be positive that a person understands. A person who is already a proficient AAC user and normally spontaneously requests tea (for example) to drink would not always need to be asked AWhat do you want to drink?” but simply AWould you like some tea?”
It may be assumed that the closed question format is faster and more effective than its open equivalent but this is not necessarily the case. A yes response does not mean that there is comprehension and the tutor may be fooled into proceeding on this basis. We have all had experience of using ‘yes’ in response to an uncomprehended situation. For example - You are sitting next to a perfect stranger on a bus. He begins to talk. You do not understand his words. You say AI’m sorry, I didn’t quite catch that.” He repeats the message. Again you find his accent and the message incomprehensible. Ask the staff what they would do. Some people will smile and nod their head and try to bluff it. If the stranger smiles everything is assumed to be OK. If he frowns we may change our response. The ‘yes’ response here does not confirm understanding.
The closed question format is commonplace. Studies have suggested that classroom talk is dominated by teachers’ questions and these are often of the closed type whereas the open question format would have had many advantages (NUTHALL G. & CHURCH J. 1973; BLANK M., ROSE S., & BERLIN L. 1978; REDFIELD D. & ROUSSEAU E. 1981;):
Observations of teacher questions addressed to children of widely different ages and in a variety of disciplines have led to the conclusion that teacher questions are more often of the ‘closed’ type with known right answers. The responses to such questions by pupils are likely to be terse and simply correct or incorrect. When pupils answer a teacher’s questions, they usually say no more and stop talking. Consequently, where such specific, closed questions are frequent, children will say little. ...... Frequent, specific questions tend to generate relatively silent children and to inhibit any discussion between them. Telling children things, giving an opinion, view, speculation or idea, stimulates more talk, questions and ideas from pupils and generates discussion between them. If all this sounds obvious, then explain why so many studies have found that classroom talk is dominated by teacher questions. (WOOD D. 1988 pp. 142 - 143)
Further, people who use AAC systems are asked many more yes or no questions than their vocal peers (SUTTON A. 1982; HARRIS D. 1978; LIGHT J., COLLIER B., & PARNES P. 1985; BASIL C. 1986).
For example, adults who interact with users of augmentative systems often over-use yes/no questions. These interactions are problematic for several reasons. First they place the learner in the role of a responder (LIGHT J., COLLIER B., & PARNES P. 1985). The learner is taught to wait until a specific question is asked before responding. As a result, users of augmentative or alternative systems tend to be poor initiators of interactions (LIGHT et al. 1985) Another adverse consequence of the over-use of yes/no questions is the limited vocabulary it demands. (REICHLE J. 1991a)
It may be assumed that there is a 50% chance of being correct when responding to a closed question such as ‘Is Paris the capital of France?’ My own experience in this area suggests that, if a person learns to respond to any closed question with Ayes”, she or he will be correct a far greater proportion of the time. Approximately 90% of closed questions require a yes response. That is, when people frame closed questions the response that is typically required is ‘yes’.
Children are eager to please. They soon learn to give the expected response to an adult who is asking them a question. Nodding the head is a very good strategy. It tends to please people. It does not follow, however, that the child understands the question or knows the answer. Be wary.
The closed question is not always faster or more efficient because an assumption of understanding based on a yes or no response may be misleading. Progression to higher levels of learning should always be based on a knowledge that all the important concepts previously taught have been understood. The closed question format does not guarantee this.
The person responding with the yes or no answer is not necessary being untruthful. The person may have ‘got hold of the wrong end of the stick’. Consider this example. I hold an empty glass in my hand. I tell you this is an example of the Senojian word ‘psarg’. You understand that ‘psarg’ is Senojian for glass. I pick up another glass and hold it firmly in my hand. I ask you if this is ‘psarg’ and you respond with a nod of the head. I smile. I am pleased you have understood. However, we are both wrong. ‘Psarg’ means ‘to hold tightly’. You were not trying to mislead me when you gave the positive response. I misled myself.
The closed question format does not encourage the use of an AAC system. The majority of people with a severe communication impairment have a positive yes or no response. There will be no need for them to use an AAC system if all communication interactions are framed as yes or no questions. T he closed question format is typically used with people who are passive. It is unclear whether passivity promotes the use of the closed question format or the closed question format promotes passivity. Perhaps the relationship is mutually reinforcing and, once again, is a vicious circle.
Open questions should be used wheneverpossible because they:
C demand an AAC response;
C allow a greater certainty of understanding;
C help promote an active rather than a passive communication style.
The closed question is faster when time is pressing and when we can be positive that a person understands. A person who is already a proficient AAC user and normally spontaneously requests tea (for example) to drink would not always need to be asked AWhat do you want to drink?” but simply AWould you like some tea?”
OPEN 3 - Reducing the frequency of the yes/no question
The cartoon reinforces the idea that the use of the yes or no question as a method of checking comprehension is not always valid. It is not always easy to stop using such a communication strategy especially if this has become a habit. ‘Closed Open Policing’ (COP) is not a recommended solution. That is, a staff member polices other members’ questions and reprimands them for using the closed format. Rather, ask people to police themselves. This is a COP out! After any interaction with an aided communicator, think about the sort of things you said and the way that you said them. Did you ask closed questions? What could you have said instead? Recordings of interactions on tape can help this analysis.
Here is a game you can play to gain skills in the use of open questions. Get into pairs. One of the pair thinks of an everyday word. The other has to guess the word but may only ask open questions. If a closed question is asked a life is lost. Lose three lives and you are out. Note that a life is always lost when a guess is made (Is it a dog?) because the guess is a closed question. Therefore, the maximum number of lives you can afford to lose before making any guess is one (If two lives are already lost, the guess, even if correct would be a yes or no question and would cause the loss of another life resulting in three strikes and out). The person responding has to answer truthfully but give away as little as possible. If a yes or no question is asked the responder refuses to answer and deducts a life. There are some rules:
C the question AWhat is the name of the thing that you are thinking of?” may not be asked;
C no questions on the spelling of a word;
C the word itself may never be said by the person who has thought of it;
C listing items from the set to which it belongs is prohibited (AWhich of the following is it? An apple or a pear or a plum or a cherry.”);
C a question may not be repeated.
Consider the following: ITEM ‘ Apple
QUESTION: Is it an animal?
RESPONSE: You have lost your first life!
QUESTION: What sort of thing is it?
RESPONSE: It is a plant form, not an animal or a mineral.
QUESTION: What sort of plant form is it?
RESPONSE: It is a fruit.
QUESTION: What colour is this fruit typically?
RESPONSE: Either green or red or both.
QUESTION: What country does this fruit grow in?
RESPONSE: It is grown here, in this country.
At this point, I am not sure if it is a pear, an apple, a plum, a strawberry, rhubarb, or other possibilities. If I guess right, I have won. However, if I guess incorrectly I have lost because my next guess (even if correct) would be the third yes or no question. I must be careful and narrow down the range of options. Spelling is against the rules. I cannot ask AWhat letter does it begin with?” What can I ask next?
QUESTION: Where does it have its seeds?
RESPONSE: On the inside.
QUESTION: How many seeds does it have?
RESPONSE: More than one.
QUESTION: How does this fruit grow? Does this fruit growon the ground, on a tree, or on a bush?
RESPONSE: On a tree.
QUESTION: What sort of thing does it compare to in size?
For example , which of the following would it compare to: A table tennis ball; a tennis ball; or a football?
RESPONSE: It is nearer to a tennis ball
It either an apple or a pear but which? What question can I ask to establish the choice? I cannot ask AWhich of the following is it - a pear or an apple?” because that breaks the rules. What would you ask next?
QUESTION: What drink can be made from this fruit?
RESPONSE: Fruit juice!
Oh dear! I thought I had him! I cannot ask the same question again because it breaks a rule. What should I ask next?
QUESTION: Is it nearer in shape to a small regular shaped party balloon or a tennis ball?
RESPONSE: To a tennis ball.
GUESS: It is an apple!
RESPONSE: Yes (You lost two lives and won.)
It is a difficult game to play. It iseasy to slip up and ask a yes or no question unintentionally, especially if there is a time limit. Let everybody have a turn as the questioner and then as the responder. Ask for comments afterwards.
Here is a game you can play to gain skills in the use of open questions. Get into pairs. One of the pair thinks of an everyday word. The other has to guess the word but may only ask open questions. If a closed question is asked a life is lost. Lose three lives and you are out. Note that a life is always lost when a guess is made (Is it a dog?) because the guess is a closed question. Therefore, the maximum number of lives you can afford to lose before making any guess is one (If two lives are already lost, the guess, even if correct would be a yes or no question and would cause the loss of another life resulting in three strikes and out). The person responding has to answer truthfully but give away as little as possible. If a yes or no question is asked the responder refuses to answer and deducts a life. There are some rules:
C the question AWhat is the name of the thing that you are thinking of?” may not be asked;
C no questions on the spelling of a word;
C the word itself may never be said by the person who has thought of it;
C listing items from the set to which it belongs is prohibited (AWhich of the following is it? An apple or a pear or a plum or a cherry.”);
C a question may not be repeated.
Consider the following: ITEM ‘ Apple
QUESTION: Is it an animal?
RESPONSE: You have lost your first life!
QUESTION: What sort of thing is it?
RESPONSE: It is a plant form, not an animal or a mineral.
QUESTION: What sort of plant form is it?
RESPONSE: It is a fruit.
QUESTION: What colour is this fruit typically?
RESPONSE: Either green or red or both.
QUESTION: What country does this fruit grow in?
RESPONSE: It is grown here, in this country.
At this point, I am not sure if it is a pear, an apple, a plum, a strawberry, rhubarb, or other possibilities. If I guess right, I have won. However, if I guess incorrectly I have lost because my next guess (even if correct) would be the third yes or no question. I must be careful and narrow down the range of options. Spelling is against the rules. I cannot ask AWhat letter does it begin with?” What can I ask next?
QUESTION: Where does it have its seeds?
RESPONSE: On the inside.
QUESTION: How many seeds does it have?
RESPONSE: More than one.
QUESTION: How does this fruit grow? Does this fruit growon the ground, on a tree, or on a bush?
RESPONSE: On a tree.
QUESTION: What sort of thing does it compare to in size?
For example , which of the following would it compare to: A table tennis ball; a tennis ball; or a football?
RESPONSE: It is nearer to a tennis ball
It either an apple or a pear but which? What question can I ask to establish the choice? I cannot ask AWhich of the following is it - a pear or an apple?” because that breaks the rules. What would you ask next?
QUESTION: What drink can be made from this fruit?
RESPONSE: Fruit juice!
Oh dear! I thought I had him! I cannot ask the same question again because it breaks a rule. What should I ask next?
QUESTION: Is it nearer in shape to a small regular shaped party balloon or a tennis ball?
RESPONSE: To a tennis ball.
GUESS: It is an apple!
RESPONSE: Yes (You lost two lives and won.)
It is a difficult game to play. It iseasy to slip up and ask a yes or no question unintentionally, especially if there is a time limit. Let everybody have a turn as the questioner and then as the responder. Ask for comments afterwards.
OPEN 4 - The Communication Continuum
There is a communication continuum which is marked by a spontaneous remark at one end (You are walking through town and a person says AI fancy a cup of tea”) and parroting at the other (You are walking through town and you wonder if the person with you would like a cup of tea. You say ASay ‘I want a drink’ on your nice machine”). In between these extremes are two further elicited forms. The first is elicited contextually (You are walking past McDonald’s and say AI fancy a drink”) the second is elicited via a verbal prompt (You are walking through town and fancy a drink you turn to the user and ask AWould you like to take a break for a drink?”).
Parroting forms the least desirable technique:
Speech is never an end in itself, it is always a means to an end. We use it to convey meaning, purpose and to bring results. To attempt to teach a child ‘parrot fashion’ would be to miss the point (JEFFREE D. & McCONKEY R. 1976)
While parroting forms the least desirable technique within the communication continuum, it should be noted that it is a technique used, in certain circumstances, by parents (and others) with children. For example, if a child asks for an item and forgets his or her manners parents will say:
AWhen you say please.”
Although initially the child is told to say the word itself, the direct prompts soon fade:
AWhat’s the ‘pl’ word?”
AHaven’t you forgotten to say something?”
AWhen you ask properly.”
Eventually, the child may be ignored until she or he asks in a socially acceptable manner.
Meal time with the Adams Family
Wednesday Adams: AMay I have the salt?”
Morticia Adams: AWhat do we say?”
Wednesday Adams: ANOW !!”
(From the feature film ‘The Adams Family’)
The verbal prompt can be sub-classified into seven categories:
C The first is an open ended question:
AWhat would you like to do?” RESPONSE AStop for a drink”
AWhat would you like to drink?” RESPONSE ATea please”
C The second is a multi choice format in which the AAC user is active:
AWhat would you like to drink - tea, coffee, or a milkshake?”
RESPONSE - AMilkshake please.”
C The third is a variation on the second - the alternative:
AWhat do you want tea or coffee?” RESPONSE ACoffee please.”
Multi choice differs from the alternative option only in the number of choices presented. For a person with severe learning difficulties a smaller range of choices is more appropriate. The alternative option is a choice of two.
C The fourth is a multi choice in which the questioner is active:
AWhat do you want to drink? There’s tea, coffee, or you could have milkshake. Do you want tea?” (Person shakes head)
ACoffee?” (Person shakes head)
AA milkshake then?” (Person nods head)
C The fifth is an alternative choice in which the questioner is active:
AWhat do you want to drink? There’s tea or coffee? Do you want tea?” (Shakes head)
ACoffee?” (Nods head)
C The sixth is a closed question
ADo you want coffee?” (Nods head)
C Finally there is Hobson’s choice. No choice at all.
AI’ve got you your tea just the way you like it!”
No questions asked.
One of the goals of AAC is to give the user the skills and the confidence to chat spontaneously. However, if a verbal prompt is required (and initially it is likely that there will be many) then it should begin at the left (as shown on the overhead) of the elicited verbal prompt continuum:
AWhat would you like to drink?”
If there is no response, it may be repeated:
Gaining eye contact - ASam, what would you like to drink?”
If there is still no response, move one step down the continuum. List the options:
AWell there’s tea, there’s coffee, there’s milkshake, and there’s juice. Which would you like?” (If this is an overload of choice consider the alternative option)
Still no response? Move one step down the continuum:
AThere’s tea, coffee, or a milkshake. Would you like tea? Coffee? A milkshake then?”
No response? Oh dear! Then use the closed format:
AJenny would you like a chocolate milkshake?”
No response! This is serious:
ADarn it Jenny, I’ll get you a glass of water.”
Note the two strategies used to help promote a user response: the selective use of a person’s name to focus attention; gaining eye contact.
It is unlikely that you will need to move so far down the continuum. However, the option is there should any particular strategy fail. The idea is not to allow the system user to fail but to provide the maximum amount of choice and opportunity for active communication skills. Of course, this assumes that the user knows about the drinks and has been taught where they are located in the AAC system.
While it is likely that, in the early stages of teaching, much use will be made of elicited verbal prompts, they should not be the only form of communication strategy used:
..... it is therefore important that the communication does not become responsive, i.e. that the individual answers only when spoken to by others or takes the ‘initiative’ after being urged to do so. Even though it is unintentional on the part of the person who plans the training, the teaching may reinforce a child’s dependence. (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
The section above does not make reference to physical prompting. This was intentional. Verbal and physical prompts, however, may be used at any point within the communication continuum to help people to achieve a desired response. All prompts should be gradually reduced. Physical prompting and other allied techniques are dealt with separately, later in this text.
Parroting forms the least desirable technique:
Speech is never an end in itself, it is always a means to an end. We use it to convey meaning, purpose and to bring results. To attempt to teach a child ‘parrot fashion’ would be to miss the point (JEFFREE D. & McCONKEY R. 1976)
While parroting forms the least desirable technique within the communication continuum, it should be noted that it is a technique used, in certain circumstances, by parents (and others) with children. For example, if a child asks for an item and forgets his or her manners parents will say:
AWhen you say please.”
Although initially the child is told to say the word itself, the direct prompts soon fade:
AWhat’s the ‘pl’ word?”
AHaven’t you forgotten to say something?”
AWhen you ask properly.”
Eventually, the child may be ignored until she or he asks in a socially acceptable manner.
Meal time with the Adams Family
Wednesday Adams: AMay I have the salt?”
Morticia Adams: AWhat do we say?”
Wednesday Adams: ANOW !!”
(From the feature film ‘The Adams Family’)
The verbal prompt can be sub-classified into seven categories:
C The first is an open ended question:
AWhat would you like to do?” RESPONSE AStop for a drink”
AWhat would you like to drink?” RESPONSE ATea please”
C The second is a multi choice format in which the AAC user is active:
AWhat would you like to drink - tea, coffee, or a milkshake?”
RESPONSE - AMilkshake please.”
C The third is a variation on the second - the alternative:
AWhat do you want tea or coffee?” RESPONSE ACoffee please.”
Multi choice differs from the alternative option only in the number of choices presented. For a person with severe learning difficulties a smaller range of choices is more appropriate. The alternative option is a choice of two.
C The fourth is a multi choice in which the questioner is active:
AWhat do you want to drink? There’s tea, coffee, or you could have milkshake. Do you want tea?” (Person shakes head)
ACoffee?” (Person shakes head)
AA milkshake then?” (Person nods head)
C The fifth is an alternative choice in which the questioner is active:
AWhat do you want to drink? There’s tea or coffee? Do you want tea?” (Shakes head)
ACoffee?” (Nods head)
C The sixth is a closed question
ADo you want coffee?” (Nods head)
C Finally there is Hobson’s choice. No choice at all.
AI’ve got you your tea just the way you like it!”
No questions asked.
One of the goals of AAC is to give the user the skills and the confidence to chat spontaneously. However, if a verbal prompt is required (and initially it is likely that there will be many) then it should begin at the left (as shown on the overhead) of the elicited verbal prompt continuum:
AWhat would you like to drink?”
If there is no response, it may be repeated:
Gaining eye contact - ASam, what would you like to drink?”
If there is still no response, move one step down the continuum. List the options:
AWell there’s tea, there’s coffee, there’s milkshake, and there’s juice. Which would you like?” (If this is an overload of choice consider the alternative option)
Still no response? Move one step down the continuum:
AThere’s tea, coffee, or a milkshake. Would you like tea? Coffee? A milkshake then?”
No response? Oh dear! Then use the closed format:
AJenny would you like a chocolate milkshake?”
No response! This is serious:
ADarn it Jenny, I’ll get you a glass of water.”
Note the two strategies used to help promote a user response: the selective use of a person’s name to focus attention; gaining eye contact.
It is unlikely that you will need to move so far down the continuum. However, the option is there should any particular strategy fail. The idea is not to allow the system user to fail but to provide the maximum amount of choice and opportunity for active communication skills. Of course, this assumes that the user knows about the drinks and has been taught where they are located in the AAC system.
While it is likely that, in the early stages of teaching, much use will be made of elicited verbal prompts, they should not be the only form of communication strategy used:
..... it is therefore important that the communication does not become responsive, i.e. that the individual answers only when spoken to by others or takes the ‘initiative’ after being urged to do so. Even though it is unintentional on the part of the person who plans the training, the teaching may reinforce a child’s dependence. (VON TETZCHNER S. & MARTINSEN H. 1992)
The section above does not make reference to physical prompting. This was intentional. Verbal and physical prompts, however, may be used at any point within the communication continuum to help people to achieve a desired response. All prompts should be gradually reduced. Physical prompting and other allied techniques are dealt with separately, later in this text.